Chemistry

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
About the Arthor......Page 6
Dedication Page......Page 7
Brief Contents......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
A Visual Approach Integrating Art and Media......Page 23
List of Applications......Page 25
Preface......Page 26
Development Process......Page 31
Acknowledgments......Page 34
Enhanced Support for Faculty & Students......Page 35
1 CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE......Page 39
Chemistry You May Already Know......Page 41
What Do Molecules Look Like?......Page 42
Elements......Page 43
Mixtures......Page 44
1.3 Scientific Measurement......Page 45
SI Base Units......Page 46
Temperature......Page 47
Fahrenheit Temperature Scale......Page 48
Derived Units: Volume and Density......Page 49
Why Are Units So Important?......Page 51
Extensive and Intensive Properties......Page 52
Significant Figures......Page 54
Calculations with Measured Numbers......Page 55
Accuracy and Precision......Page 57
Dimensional Analysis—Tracking Units......Page 59
How Can I Enhance My Chances of Success in Chemistry Class?......Page 60
2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS......Page 71
2.1 The Atomic Theory......Page 73
Discovery of the Electron......Page 76
Radioactivity......Page 77
The Proton and the Nucleus......Page 78
Nuclear Model of the Atom......Page 79
The Neutron......Page 80
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes......Page 81
2.4 The Periodic Table......Page 82
Distribution of Elements on Earth......Page 84
2.5 The Atomic Mass Scale and Average Atomic Mass......Page 85
Molecules......Page 87
Molecular Formulas......Page 88
Naming Molecular Compounds......Page 89
Empirical Formulas......Page 91
Atomic Ions......Page 95
Polyatomic Ions......Page 96
Formulas of Ionic Compounds......Page 97
Naming Ionic Compounds......Page 98
How Are Oxoanions and Oxoacids Named?......Page 99
Hydrates......Page 101
Familiar Inorganic Compounds......Page 102
3 STOICHIOMETRY: RATIOS OF COMBINATION......Page 113
3.1 Molecular and Formula Masses......Page 115
3.2 Percent Composition of Compounds......Page 116
Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations......Page 117
Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 118
The Stoichiometry of Metabolism......Page 121
The Mole......Page 123
Determining Molar Mass......Page 125
Interconverting Mass, Moles, and Numbers of Particles......Page 126
Empirical Formula from Percent Composition......Page 127
Determination of Empirical Formula......Page 128
Determination of Molecular Formula......Page 129
Moles of Reactants and Products......Page 131
Mass of Reactants and Products......Page 132
Determining the Limiting Reactant......Page 134
Limiting Reactant Problems......Page 135
Reaction Yield......Page 138
How Am I Supposed to Remember All These Reactions?......Page 141
4 REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS......Page 153
Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes......Page 155
The Invention of Gatorade......Page 157
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water......Page 159
Molecular Equations......Page 162
Net Ionic Equations......Page 163
Strong Acids and Bases......Page 165
Brønsted Acids and Bases......Page 166
Acid-Base Neutralization......Page 168
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 170
Oxidation Numbers......Page 171
Balancing Simple Redox Equations......Page 172
How Do I Assign Oxidation Numbers?......Page 174
Other Types of Redox Reactions......Page 177
Molarity......Page 179
Dilution......Page 181
Serial Dilution......Page 182
Preparing a Solution from a Solid......Page 183
Solution Stoichiometry......Page 186
How Can We Measure Solution Concentrations?......Page 187
Gravimetric Analysis......Page 191
Acid-Base Titrations......Page 192
5 THERMOCHEMISTRY......Page 207
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions......Page 209
Units of Energy......Page 210
States and State Functions......Page 213
The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 214
Work and Heat......Page 215
Reactions Carried Out at Constant Volume or at Constant Pressure......Page 216
Enthalpy and Enthalpy Changes......Page 218
Thermochemical Equations......Page 219
Specific Heat and Heat Capacity......Page 221
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 222
Determination of ΔH°[sub(rxn)] by Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 223
Heat Capacity and Hypothermia......Page 226
Determination of Specific Heat by Constant-Pressure Calorimetry......Page 227
What if the Heat Capacity of the Calorimeter Isn't Negligible?......Page 229
Constant-Volume Calorimetry......Page 230
5.5 Hess's Law......Page 232
5.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 234
6 QUANTUM THEORY AND THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS......Page 247
Properties of Waves......Page 249
The Double-Slit Experiment......Page 250
Quantization of Energy......Page 252
Laser Pointers......Page 253
Photons and the Photoelectric Effect......Page 254
Where Have I Encountered the Photoelectric Effect?......Page 255
Atomic Line Spectra......Page 257
The Line Spectrum of Hydrogen......Page 258
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen......Page 261
Lasers......Page 264
The de Broglie Hypothesis......Page 265
6.5 Quantum Mechanics......Page 267
The Uncertainty Principle......Page 268
The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 269
Magnetic Quantum Number (m[sub(l)])......Page 270
Electron Spin Quantum Number (m[sub(s)])......Page 271
s Orbitals......Page 273
d Orbitals and Other Higher-Energy Orbitals......Page 274
Energies of Orbitals......Page 275
Energies of Atomic Orbitals in Many-Electron Systems......Page 276
The Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 277
Hund's Rule......Page 278
General Rules for Writing Electron Configurations......Page 279
6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table......Page 280
7 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND THE PERIODIC TABLE......Page 293
7.1 Development of the Periodic Table......Page 295
The Chemical Elements of Life......Page 296
Classification of Elements......Page 298
Why Are There Two Different Sets of Numbers at the Top of the Periodic Table?......Page 299
7.3 Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 301
Atomic Radius......Page 302
Ionization Energy......Page 304
Electron Affinity......Page 306
Metallic Character......Page 308
What Causes the Periodic Trends in Properties?......Page 309
Ions of Main Group Elements......Page 310
Ions of d-Block Elements......Page 311
Comparing Ionic Radius with Atomic Radius......Page 312
Isoelectronic Series......Page 313
General Trends in Chemical Properties......Page 315
Properties of the Active Metals......Page 316
Properties of Other Main Group Elements......Page 318
Comparison of Group 1A and Group 1B Elements......Page 322
Variation in Properties of Oxides Within a Period......Page 323
8 CHEMICAL BONDING I: BASIC CONCEPTS......Page 333
8.1 Lewis Dot Symbols......Page 335
8.2 Ionic Bonding......Page 336
Lattice Energy......Page 337
The Born-Haber Cycle......Page 339
Born-Haber Cycle......Page 341
Lewis Structures......Page 343
Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Compounds......Page 344
8.4 Electronegativity and Polarity......Page 345
Electronegativity......Page 346
Dipole Moment, Partial Charges, and Percent Ionic Character......Page 348
8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures......Page 350
8.6 Lewis Structures and Formal Charge......Page 352
8.7 Resonance......Page 355
Odd Numbers of Electrons......Page 357
Expanded Octets......Page 358
Which Is More Important: Formal Charge or the Octet Rule?......Page 361
8.9 Bond Enthalpy......Page 362
9 CHEMICAL BONDING II: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY AND BONDING THEORIES......Page 375
The VSEPR Model......Page 377
Electron-Domain Geometry and Molecular Geometry......Page 379
Geometry of Molecules with More Than One Central Atom......Page 382
9.2 Molecular Geometry and Polarity......Page 384
Can More Complex Molecules Contain Polar Bonds and Still Be Nonpolar?......Page 385
9.3 Valence Bond Theory......Page 387
9.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals......Page 390
Hybridization of s and p Orbitals......Page 391
Hybridization of s, p, and d Orbitals......Page 394
9.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Multiple Bonds......Page 398
Formation of Pi Bonds in Ethylene and Acetylene......Page 403
Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals......Page 405
σ Molecular Orbitals......Page 406
π Molecular Orbitals......Page 407
Molecular Orbital Diagrams......Page 409
9.7 Bonding Theories and Descriptions of Molecules with Delocalized Bonding......Page 412
10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY......Page 423
10.1 Why Carbon Is Different......Page 425
10.2 Classes of Organic Compounds......Page 427
How Are Organic Compounds Named?......Page 429
How Do We Name Molecules with More Than One Substituent?......Page 434
How Do We Name Compounds with Specific Functional Groups?......Page 435
Condensed Structural Formulas......Page 437
Skeletal Structures......Page 438
Resonance......Page 440
Stereoisomerism......Page 443
Plane-Polarized Light and 3-D Movies......Page 446
10.5 Organic Reactions......Page 447
Addition Reactions......Page 448
Substitution Reactions......Page 450
S[sub(N)]1 Reactions......Page 451
Other Types of Organic Reactions......Page 455
The Chemistry of Vision......Page 456
Addition Polymers......Page 457
Condensation Polymers......Page 458
Biological Polymers......Page 459
11 GASES......Page 477
11.1 Properties of Gases......Page 479
Gas Pressure: Definition and Units......Page 480
Measurement of Pressure......Page 481
Boyle’s Law: The Pressure-Volume Relationship......Page 484
Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law: The Temperature-Volume Relationship......Page 486
Avogadro’s Law: The Amount-Volume Relationship......Page 489
The Combined Gas Law: The Pressure-Temperature-Amount-Volume Relationship......Page 490
Deriving the Ideal Gas Equation from the Empirical Gas Laws......Page 492
Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation......Page 493
11.4 Reactions with Gaseous Reactants and Products......Page 495
Calculating the Required Volume of a Gaseous Reactant......Page 496
Determining the Amount of Reactant Consumed Using Change in Pressure......Page 497
Predicting the Volume of a Gaseous Product......Page 498
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 499
Mole Fractions......Page 500
Using Partial Pressures to Solve Problems......Page 501
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy......Page 503
Molar Volume of a Gas......Page 505
Application to the Gas Laws......Page 507
Molecular Speed......Page 508
Diffusion and Effusion......Page 511
The van der Waals Equation......Page 513
What’s Really the Difference Between Real Gases and Ideal Gases?......Page 516
12 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS......Page 529
Dipole-Dipole Interactions......Page 531
Hydrogen Bonding......Page 532
Sickle Cell Disease......Page 533
Dispersion Forces......Page 535
Surface Tension......Page 537
Viscosity......Page 538
Vapor Pressure......Page 539
Unit Cells......Page 542
Packing Spheres......Page 543
Closest Packing......Page 545
How Do We Know the Structures of Crystals?......Page 547
12.4 Types of Crystals......Page 549
Ionic Crystals......Page 550
Molecular Crystals......Page 552
Metallic Crystals......Page 553
12.6 Phase Changes......Page 554
Liquid-Vapor Phase Transition......Page 555
Solid-Liquid Phase Transition......Page 557
Solid-Vapor Phase Transition......Page 558
The Dangers of Phase Changes......Page 559
12.7 Phase Diagrams......Page 561
13 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS......Page 575
13.1 Types of Solutions......Page 577
13.2 The Solution Process......Page 578
Why Do Some Things Dissolve and Not Others?......Page 579
Vitamin Solubility......Page 581
Percent by Mass......Page 584
Comparison of Concentration Units......Page 585
Pressure......Page 587
Vapor-Pressure Lowering......Page 590
Boiling-Point Elevation......Page 592
Freezing-Point Depression......Page 593
Osmotic Pressure......Page 594
Electrolyte Solutions......Page 595
Intravenous Fluids......Page 597
Hemodialysis......Page 599
13.6 Calculations Using Colligative Properties......Page 600
13.7 Colloids......Page 602
14 CHEMICAL KINETICS......Page 615
Average Reaction Rate......Page 617
Instantaneous Rate......Page 619
Stoichiometry and Reaction Rate......Page 621
Experimental Determination of the Rate Law......Page 624
14.3 Dependence of Reactant Concentration on Time......Page 628
First-Order Reactions......Page 629
Second-Order Reactions......Page 633
Collision Theory......Page 636
The Arrhenius Equation......Page 637
Elementary Reactions......Page 641
Rate-Determining Step......Page 642
Experimental Support for Reaction Mechanisms......Page 643
How Can I Tell if a Proposed Reaction Mechanism Is Plausible?......Page 645
14.6 Catalysis......Page 647
Homogeneous Catalysis......Page 649
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts......Page 650
Catalysis and Hangovers......Page 652
15 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM......Page 665
15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium......Page 667
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 669
Calculating Equilibrium Constants......Page 670
Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 673
Heterogeneous Equilibria......Page 674
Manipulating Equilibrium Expressions......Page 675
What if the Equilibrium Expression Contains Only Gases?......Page 678
Predicting the Direction of a Reaction......Page 681
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 682
Addition or Removal of a Substance......Page 687
Changes in Volume and Pressure......Page 689
Catalysis......Page 691
Hemoglobin Production at High Altitude......Page 692
Le Châtelier’s Principle......Page 693
What Happens to the Units in Equilibrium Constants?......Page 697
16 ACIDS AND BASES......Page 709
16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases......Page 711
16.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Water......Page 712
16.3 The pH Scale......Page 714
Antacids and the pH Balance in Your Stomach......Page 717
Strong Acids......Page 719
Strong Bases......Page 720
Calculating pH from K[sub(a)]......Page 723
Using Equilibrium Tables to Solve Problems......Page 725
Percent Ionization......Page 728
Using pH to Determine K[sub(a)]......Page 730
The Ionization Constant, K[sub(b)]......Page 731
Calculating pH from K[sub(b)]......Page 732
Using pH to Determine K[sub(b)]......Page 733
The Strength of a Conjugate Acid or Base......Page 734
The Relationship Between K[sub(a)] and K[sub(b)] of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair......Page 735
16.8 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids......Page 737
Oxoacids......Page 740
Carboxylic Acids......Page 742
Basic Salt Solutions......Page 743
Acidic Salt Solutions......Page 744
Neutral Salt Solutions......Page 746
Salts in Which Both the Cation and the Anion Hydrolyze......Page 747
Oxides of Metals and Nonmetals......Page 748
16.12 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 749
17 ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA AND SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA......Page 763
17.1 The Common Ion Effect......Page 765
Calculating the pH of a Buffer......Page 766
Buffer Solutions......Page 769
Preparing a Buffer Solution with a Specific pH......Page 771
Maintaining the pH of Blood......Page 772
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 774
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations......Page 775
Strong Acid–Weak Base Titrations......Page 779
Acid-Base Indicators......Page 781
Solubility Product Expression and K[sub(sp)]......Page 784
Calculations Involving K[sub(sp)] and Solubility......Page 786
Predicting Precipitation Reactions......Page 788
The Common Ion Effect......Page 790
pH......Page 791
Complex Ion Formation......Page 795
How Do I Solve Equilibrium Problems Involving Complex Ion Formation?......Page 797
Fractional Precipitation......Page 800
Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions in Solution......Page 801
Common Ion Effect......Page 793
18 ENTROPY, FREE ENERGY, AND EQUILIBRIUM......Page 813
18.2 Entropy......Page 815
A Quantitative Definition of Entropy......Page 816
Calculating ΔS[sub(sys)]......Page 817
Standard Entropy, S°......Page 819
Qualitatively Predicting the Sign of ΔS°[sub(sys)]......Page 821
Factors That Infl uence the Entropy of a System......Page 823
18.4 Entropy Changes in the Universe......Page 825
Calculating ΔS[sub(surr)]......Page 826
The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 827
The Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 829
Gibbs Free-Energy Change, ΔG......Page 830
Standard Free-Energy Changes, ΔG°......Page 832
Using ΔG and ΔG° to Solve Problems......Page 833
Relationship Between ΔG and ΔG°......Page 836
Relationship Between ΔG° and K......Page 837
18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems......Page 841
19 ELECTROCHEMISTRY......Page 853
19.1 Balancing Redox Reactions......Page 855
19.2 Galvanic Cells......Page 858
Construction of a Galvanic Cell......Page 859
19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 861
19.4 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions Under Standard-State Conditions......Page 867
The Nernst Equation......Page 870
Concentration Cells......Page 872
Biological Concentration Cells......Page 873
How Are Very Small Solution Concentrations Measured?......Page 874
Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries......Page 875
Lead Storage Batteries......Page 876
Fuel Cells......Page 877
Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride......Page 878
Electrolysis of an Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solution......Page 879
Quantitative Applications of Electrolysis......Page 881
19.8 Corrosion......Page 883
20 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY......Page 895
20.1 Nuclei and Nuclear Reactions......Page 897
20.2 Nuclear Stability......Page 898
Patterns of Nuclear Stability......Page 899
Nuclear Binding Energy......Page 900
20.3 Natural Radioactivity......Page 903
Dating Based on Radioactive Decay......Page 905
20.4 Nuclear Transmutation......Page 908
20.5 Nuclear Fission......Page 910
Nuclear Fission and Fusion......Page 911
20.6 Nuclear Fusion......Page 916
Chemical Analysis......Page 918
20.8 Biological Effects of Radiation......Page 919
Radioactivity in Tobacco......Page 921
21 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY......Page 929
21.1 Earth’s Atmosphere......Page 931
Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis......Page 934
The Mystery Glow of Space Shuttles......Page 935
21.3 Depletion of Ozone in the Stratosphere......Page 936
Polar Ozone Holes......Page 937
21.5 The Greenhouse Effect......Page 939
21.6 Acid Rain......Page 944
21.7 Photochemical Smog......Page 946
The Risk from Radon......Page 947
Formaldehyde......Page 949
22 COORDINATION CHEMISTRY......Page 957
Properties of Transition Metals......Page 959
Ligands......Page 961
Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds......Page 963
22.2 Structure of Coordination Compounds......Page 965
Crystal Field Splitting in Octahedral Complexes......Page 968
Color......Page 969
Magnetic Properties......Page 970
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes......Page 972
22.4 Reactions of Coordination Compounds......Page 973
22.5 Applications of Coordination Compounds......Page 974
The Coordination Chemistry of Oxygen Transport......Page 975
23 METALLURGY AND THE CHEMISTRY OF METALS......Page 981
23.1 Occurrence of Metals......Page 983
Production of Metals......Page 984
The Metallurgy of Iron......Page 985
Steelmaking......Page 986
Purification of Metals......Page 988
Conductors......Page 989
Semiconductors......Page 990
23.4 Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties......Page 991
23.5 The Alkali Metals......Page 992
23.6 The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 994
Calcium......Page 995
23.7 Aluminum......Page 996
24 NONMETALLIC ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS......Page 1005
24.2 Hydrogen......Page 1007
Binary Hydrides......Page 1008
Isotopes of Hydrogen......Page 1009
The Hydrogen Economy......Page 1010
24.3 Carbon......Page 1011
Nitrogen......Page 1012
Phosphorus......Page 1015
Oxygen......Page 1017
Sulfur......Page 1019
24.6 The Halogens......Page 1022
Preparation and General Properties of the Halogens......Page 1024
Compounds of the Halogens......Page 1026
Uses of the Halogens......Page 1027
25 MODERN MATERIALS......Page 1035
Addition Polymers......Page 1037
Condensation Polymers......Page 1042
Electrically Conducting Polymers......Page 1044
Ceramics......Page 1046
Composite Materials......Page 1047
25.3 Liquid Crystals......Page 1048
25.4 Biomedical Materials......Page 1050
Soft Tissue Materials......Page 1051
Artificial Joints......Page 1052
Graphite, Buckyballs, and Nanotubes......Page 1053
25.6 Semiconductors......Page 1055
25.7 Superconductors......Page 1057
1 Mathematical Operations......Page 1066
2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C......Page 1071
3 Solubility Product Constants at 25°C......Page 1077
Glossary......Page 1080
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems......Page 1090
Credits......Page 1108
Index......Page 1110