Chemical Quality Assurance of Milk and Milk Products

Preface
Contents
About the Authors
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
1: Introduction
1.1 Status of Milk Production and Consumption in India
1.2 Status of Milk Production and Consumption Throughout the World
1.3 Challenges Faced by Dairy Industry in Quality Assessment of Raw Milk
Suggested Readings
2: Sampling Plan for Milk and Milk Products
2.1 Scope of Sampling
2.2 Sampling Purpose
2.2.1 Samples Drawn for Regulatory Purposes
2.2.2 Samples Drawn for Monitoring Purpose at the Factory Level
2.3 Sampling Procedure
2.4 Collection of the Samples
2.5 Sampling Plan for Raw Milk
2.5.1 Sampling from an Individual Container
2.5.2 Sampling from Several Containers
2.5.3 Sampling from Bulk Units
2.5.4 Sampling from Storage Tanks and Rail and Road Milk Tankers
2.6 Sampling Plan for Processed Milk
2.6.1 Sampling from a Storage Tank or Silo
2.6.2 Sampling of the Packed Milk
2.7 Sampling Procedure for Channa/Paneer/Cheese
2.7.1 Sampling by Cutting a Sector
2.7.2 Sampling Using a Trier
2.7.3 Sampling by Taking the Whole Product
2.7.4 Preparation of Paneer/Cheese/Channa Samples for Analysis
2.7.5 Sampling by Cutting Using a Knife with a Pointed Blade
2.7.6 Sampling Scale for Cheese
2.8 Sampling Procedure for Khoa
2.9 Sampling Procedure for Sterilized Milk/Flavored Milk
2.9.1 Scale of Sampling
2.9.2 Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis
2.9.3 Preparation of Samples for Microbiological Analysis
2.10 Sampling Procedure for Dahi, Yoghurt, and Srikhand
2.10.1 Preparation of Samples for Chemical Analysis
2.10.2 Preparation of Samples for Microbiological Analysis
2.11 Sampling Procedure for Ice Cream
2.11.1 Scale of Sampling
2.11.2 Preparation of Sample of Ice Cream
2.12 Sampling Procedure for Condensed Milk
2.12.1 Scale of Sampling
2.12.2 Preparation of Sample of Condensed Milk for Analysis
2.13 Sampling Procedure for Milk Powders
2.13.1 Scale of Sampling
2.13.2 Preparation of Sample for Analysis
2.14 Sampling Procedure for Butter
2.14.1 Scale of Sampling
2.14.2 Sampling Technique for Butter
2.14.2.1 Hard and Semihard Butter Kept Under Cold Storage
2.15 Sampling Procedure for Ghee (Anhydrous Milk Fat)/Butter Oil
2.15.1 Scale of Sampling
2.15.2 Sampling Technique
2.16 Labeling of the Samples for Analysis
Suggested Readings
3: Quality Assessment of Raw Milk
3.1 Visual and Organoleptic Tests
3.2 Sediment Test
3.3 Clot-on-Boiling Test (COB)
3.4 Alcohol Test
3.5 Alcohol-Alizarin Test
3.6 Heat Stability Assay for Milk
3.7 Detection of Preservatives in Milk
3.7.1 Neutralizers
3.7.2 Boric Acid and Borates
3.7.3 Formalin
3.7.4 Hydrogen Peroxide
3.7.5 Benzoic Acid
3.7.6 Salicylic Acid
3.7.7 Hypochlorites
3.8 Detection of Adulterants
3.8.1 Sucrose or Cane Sugar
3.8.2 Starch or Other Cereal Flours
3.8.3 Urea
3.8.4 Glucose
3.8.5 Maltodextrin
3.8.6 Pond Water
3.8.7 Vegetable Fat
3.8.8 Baudouin Test
3.8.9 Mineral Oil
3.8.10 Animal Body Fat
3.8.11 Mastitic/Abnormal Milk
3.8.12 Addition of Skim Milk Powder
3.8.13 Detergent in Milk
3.8.14 Salt
3.8.15 Ammonia Compounds
3.8.16 Soya Powder
3.8.17 Sulfates
3.8.18 Detection of Adulteration in Milk Using Biosensor and Immunological Techniques
3.9 Compositional Analysis of Raw Milk
3.9.1 Fat Test
3.9.2 Solids-Not-Fat Test
3.9.3 Titratable Acidity
3.9.4 Protein Content
3.9.5 Lactose Content
3.9.6 Ash Content
3.9.7 Lactate Content
Suggested Readings
4: Quality Assessment of Processed Milk
4.1 Chemical Tests for Processed Milk
4.1.1 Fat Test
4.1.2 Solids-Not-Fat Test
4.1.3 Total Solids/Moisture Content
4.1.4 Protein Content
4.1.5 Lactose Content
4.1.6 Ash Content
4.1.7 Titratable Acidity
4.1.8 Phosphatase Test
4.1.9 Turbidity Test
4.1.10 Homogenization Efficiency
4.1.11 Creaming Index
Suggested Readings
5: Quality Assessment of Milk Products
5.1 Analysis of Cheese, Paneer, Channa, and Khoa
5.1.1 Fat Test
5.1.2 Moisture and Total Solids Content
5.1.3 Total Protein Content
5.1.4 Soluble Protein Content (Mamo 2017)
5.1.5 Total Ash Content
5.1.6 Titratable Acidity
5.1.7 Salt Content
5.1.8 Total Volatile Fatty Acids
5.1.9 Ripening Index
5.2 Sweetened/Sterilized Flavored Milk
5.2.1 Fat Test
5.2.2 Total Solids Content
5.2.3 Titratable Acidity
5.2.4 Turbidity Test
5.2.5 Sucrose Content
5.3 Dahi, Yoghurt, and Srikhand
5.3.1 Moisture and Total Solids Content
5.3.2 Fat Content
5.3.3 Total Protein Content
5.3.4 Titratable Acidity
5.3.5 Diacetyl Content
5.3.6 Sucrose Content
5.4 Ice Cream
5.4.1 Fat Content
5.4.2 Total Solids Content
5.4.3 Total Protein Content
5.4.4 Sucrose Content
5.4.5 Overrun in Ice Cream
5.4.6 Melting Test and Shape Retention of Ice Cream (Arbuckle 2013)
5.4.7 Alcohol Test for Protein Stability of Ice Cream Mix (Arbuckle 2013)
5.5 Evaporated and Sweetened Condensed Milk
5.5.1 Fat Content
5.5.2 Total Solids Content
5.5.3 Sucrose Content
5.5.4 Titratable Acidity
5.5.5 Protein Content
5.6 Ghee, Butter-Oil, and Anhydrous Butter-Oil
5.6.1 Moisture Test
5.6.2 Free Fatty Acid
5.6.3 Acid Value
5.6.4 Reichert-Meissel (RM) Value
5.6.5 Polenske Value
5.6.6 Peroxide Value
5.6.7 Saponification Number
5.6.8 Iodine Number
5.6.9 Butyro Refractometer (BR) Reading
5.6.10 Unsaponifiable Matter and Cholesterol Content
5.6.11 Antioxidants in Ghee
5.6.12 Adulterants in Ghee
5.6.12.1 Vanaspati in Ghee (Baudouin Test)
5.6.12.2 Mineral Oil
5.6.12.3 Animal Body Fat
5.6.12.4 Phytosterol Test
5.6.12.5 Detection of Vegetable Oil in Ghee by Reversed Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) (Rani et al. 20...
5.6.13 Fatty Acid Analysis of Ghee/Butter Oil/Anhydrous Butter Oil
5.7 Unsalted Butter and Table Butter
5.7.1 Moisture Content
5.7.2 Fat and Curd Content
5.7.3 Salt Content
5.7.4 Test to Distinguish Between Annatto (Natural Color) and Azo Dye (Synthetic Color) in Butter (IS:3507)
5.8 Milk Powder
5.8.1 Fat Content
5.8.2 Moisture and Total Solids Content
5.8.3 Total Protein Content
5.8.4 Total Ash Content
5.8.5 Acid Insoluble Ash
5.8.6 Total Carbohydrate (in Infant and Weaning Foods)
5.8.7 Titratable Acidity
5.8.8 Reconstitution Properties
5.8.8.1 Bulk Density
5.8.8.2 Solubility Index
5.8.8.3 Scorched Particles
5.8.8.4 Dispersibility
5.8.8.5 Flowability
5.8.8.6 Wettability
5.8.8.7 Sinkability
5.8.8.8 Particle Size
5.8.9 Hydroxymethylfurfural (Sokolinska et al. 2005)
Suggested Readings
6: Calibration and Standardization
6.1 Calibration of Milk Pipette
6.2 Calibration of Butyrometer
6.3 Calibration of Lactometer
6.4 Calibration of Other Pipettes
6.5 Calibration of Volumetric Flask/Measuring Cylinder/Beaker
6.6 Calibration of Thermometer
6.7 Calibration of Weighing Balance
6.8 Standardization of Acids, Bases, and Other Chemical Solutions
Appendix
Suggested Readings
7: Tests to Ensure Quality of Dairy Products
7.1 Determining Strength of Washing Solution
7.2 Determination of Available Chlorine in Hypochlorite Solution
7.3 Determination of Iodine in Chemical Sanitizer
7.4 Assessing Sterility of Dairy Equipment
7.5 Hardness Determination of Water
7.6 Biological Oxygen Demand of Dairy Effluent
7.7 Chemical Oxygen Demand of Dairy Effluent
7.8 Detection of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk
7.9 Determination of Melamine in Milk and Infant Formula
7.10 Determination of Pesticides in Milk
7.11 Determination of Antibiotic Residues in Milk
Suggested Readings
8: Specifications of Chemicals Used in Dairy Industry
8.1 Specifications of Gerber Sulfuric Acid (IS: 1224, Part-II)
8.1.1 Preparation of Gerber Sulfuric Acid
8.1.2 Precautions
8.2 Specification of Amyl Alcohol (IS: 360)
8.2.1 Test for Furfural and Other Organic Impurities
8.2.2 Test of Amyl Alcohol for Suitability for Milk Analysis
8.2.3 Hydrochloric Acid Test
8.2.4 Packing and Marking
8.2.5 Sampling Instructions
8.3 Specification of Common Salt (Edible) (IS: 253)
8.3.1 Preparation of the Sample for Chemical Tests
8.3.2 Determination of Water Insoluble Matter
8.3.3 Determination of Chloride Content
8.3.4 Determination of Sulfate
8.3.5 Determination of Alkalinity
8.3.6 Determination of Water-Soluble Ca and Mg
8.3.7 Test for Lead
8.3.8 Packing and Marking
8.4 Specification of Sodium Citrate (Food Grade) (IS: 5058)
8.4.1 Requirements
8.4.2 Packing, Storage, and Marking
8.5 Specifications of Nitric Acid (IS: 264)
8.5.1 Description
8.5.2 Determination of Total Acidity
8.5.3 Determination of Sulfates
8.5.4 Test for Heavy Metals
8.5.5 Packing and Marking
8.6 Specification of Caustic Lye (IS: 252)
8.6.1 Form and Description
8.6.2 Preparation of Sample for Testing
8.6.3 Determination of Carbonates
8.6.4 Determination of Sodium Hydroxide
8.6.5 Measurement of Total Strength
8.6.6 Packing and Marking
8.6.7 Sampling of Caustic Lye
8.7 Specifications for Sodium Thiosulfate (IS: 14781)
8.7.1 Test for Heavy Metals
8.7.2 Packing and Marking
8.8 Specification for Reagent Grade Water (IS: 1070)
8.8.1 Packing and Marking
Suggested Readings
9: Quality Concepts
9.1 What Is Quality?
9.2 What Is Quality Control?
9.2.1 Implementation of Effective Quality Control
9.2.2 Responsibilities of Quality Control Department
9.3 What Is Quality Assurance?
9.4 Objectives and Importance
9.5 Responsibility of the Quality Assurance Department
9.6 Principles of Quality Assurance
9.7 Deming´s Philosophy
9.8 The Deming Cycle
9.8.1 Plan
9.8.2 Do
9.8.3 Check
9.8.4 Act
9.9 The Juran´s Philosophy
9.9.1 Quality Planning
9.9.2 Quality Control
9.9.3 Quality Improvement
9.10 Three Steps to Progress
9.11 Ten Steps to Quality
9.12 Pareto Principle
9.13 Crosby´s Theory
9.13.1 Crosby´s Absolutes
9.13.2 Zero Defects
9.14 Ishikawa´s Theory
9.15 Total Quality Management
9.15.1 Basic Principles of TQM
9.15.2 Elements of TQM
9.15.3 Approaches to TQM
9.15.4 The Concept of Continuous Improvement to Be Achieved by TQM
9.16 Pillars of TQM
9.16.1 Obstacles Encountered During Implementation of TQM
9.17 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP)
9.17.1 History of HACCP
9.17.2 Prerequisites in a HACCP Plan
9.18 Principles of HACCP
9.19 Housekeeping (5S)
9.20 Meaning of 5S?
9.20.1 Kaizen
9.20.2 Hoshin Kanri
9.20.3 Six Sigma
9.21 DMAIC
9.22 DMADV or DFSS
9.22.1 Key Roles in Six Sigma
Suggested Readings
10: Safety and Regulatory Aspects of Dairy Industry
10.1 WTO Agreements and SPS Measures
10.1.1 Most Favored Nations
10.1.2 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
10.2 Codex Alimentarius Commission
10.3 International Organization for Standards (ISO)
10.3.1 ISO Governance Structure
10.4 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
10.5 Regulatory Institutions of India
10.5.1 Legal and Quality Standards
10.5.2 Quality Standards
10.5.3 Requirement of Legal and Quality Standards
10.6 Roles and Functions of FSSAI
10.6.1 FSSAI Registration and Important Terminology
10.6.2 Types of Licenses/Registration
10.6.3 Penalty and Punishments
10.6.4 Initiatives
10.6.5 Food Traceability
10.6.6 Food Recall Plan
10.6.7 Composition of Food Authority (FSSAI)
10.6.8 Enforcement of the Act
10.6.9 Central Advisory Committee
10.6.10 Commissioners of Food Safety
10.6.11 Procedure for Collection and Analysis of FSSAI Food Samples
10.6.12 Preservative Permitted to Be Added to Samples
10.7 Agmark and BIS Standards for Milk Products
10.7.1 Objectives of Agmark Scheme
10.7.2 AGMARK Standards for Butter
10.7.3 Specifications for Butter Under AGMARK
10.7.4 Grading of Ghee Under AGMARK
10.7.5 Bureau of Indian Standards
10.7.6 Structure of BIS/Members of BIS
10.7.7 Objectives and Functions of BIS
10.7.8 How to Get Authority to Use ISI Mark?
10.8 International Dairy Federation
10.9 Food and Drug Administration
10.9.1 Organizations of FDA
10.9.2 What Does FDA Regulates?
10.9.3 Regulatory Programs of FDA
10.9.4 Food and Dietary Supplements
10.9.5 Drugs
10.9.6 Vaccines, Blood and Tissue Products, and Biotechnology
10.9.7 Medical and Radiation-Emitting Devices
10.9.8 Cosmetics
10.9.9 Veterinary Products
10.9.10 Tobacco Products
10.9.11 What Does FDA not Regulate?
10.9.12 FDA and India
Suggested Readings
Appendix 1
FSSAI Standards for Milk and Milk Products
Appendix 2
Scheme for Testing and Inspection for Milk to be Adopted by Dairy Processing Units