Chemical Process Engineering: Volume 1 & Volume 2

Cover
Half-Title Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Companion Web Page
Gratitude
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
1. Computations with Excel Spreadsheet-UniSim Design Simulation
SECTION I - NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
Excel Spreadsheet
Functions
Trendline Coefficients
Goal Seek
SOLVER
LINEAR REGRESSION
Measuring Regression Quality
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
NONLINEAR EQUATIONS
INTERPOLATIONS
INTEGRATIONS
The Trapezoidal Rule
Simpson’s 1/3 Rule
Simpson’s 3/8 Rule
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Nth Order Ordinary Differential Equations
Solution of First-Order Ordinary Differential Equations
Runge-Kutta Methods
EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
SECTION II – PROCESS SIMULATION
INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics for Process Simulators
UNISIM Design Software
EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
References
2. Physical Property of Pure Components and Mixtures
PURE COMPONENTS
Density of Liquid
Viscosity of Liquid
Heat Capacity of Liquid
Thermal Conductivity of Liquid
Volumetric Expansion Rate
Vapor Pressure
Viscosity of Gas
Thermal Conductivity of Gas
Heat Capacity of Gases
MIXTURES
Surface Tensions
Viscosity of Gas Mixture
Enthalpy of Formation
Enthalpy of Vaporization
Gibbs Energy of Reaction
Henry’s Law Constant for Gases in Water
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Liquid
DIFFUSION COEFFICIENTS
Gas-Phase Diffusion Coefficients
Liquid-Phase Diffusion Coefficients
COMPRESSIBILITY Z-FACTOR
SOLUBILITY AND ADSORPTION
Solubility of Hydrocarbons in Water
Solubility of Gases in Water
Solubility of Sulfur and Nitrogen Compounds in Water
Adsorption on Activated Carbon
References
3. Fluid Flow
INTRODUCTION
FLOW OF FLUIDS IN PIPES
EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF VARIOUS FITTINGS AND VALVES
Excess Head Loss
Pipe Reduction and Enlargement
PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS FOR SINGLE-PHASE INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
Friction Factor
Overall Pressure Drop
Nomenclature
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
Maximum Flow and Pressure Drop
Critical or Sonic Flow and the Mach Number
Mach Number
Mathematical Model of Compressible Isothermal Flow
Flow Rate Through Pipeline
Pipeline Pressure Drop
Nomenclature
Subscripts
TWO-PHASE FLOW IN PROCESS PIPING
Flow Patterns
Flow Regimes
Pressure Drop
Erosion-Corrosion
Nomenclature
VAPOR-LIQUID TWO-PHASE VERTICAL DOWNFLOW
The Equations
The Algorithm
Nomenclature
LINE SIZES FOR FLASHING STEAM CONDENSATE
The Equations
Nomenclature
FLOW THROUGH PACKED BEDS
The Equations
Nomenclature
EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
References
4. Equipment Sizing
INTRODUCTION
SIZING OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS
Vertical Separators
Calculation Method for a Vertical Drum
Calculation Method for a Horizontal Drum
Liquid Holdup and Vapor Space Disengagement
Wire Mesh Pad
Standards for Horizontal Separators
Piping Requirements
Nomenclature
SIZING OF PARTLY FILLED VESSELS AND TANKS
The Equations
Nomenclature
PRELIMINARY VESSEL DESIGN
Nomenclature
CYCLONE DESIGN
Introduction
Cyclone Design Procedure
The Equations
Saltation Velocity
Pressure Drop
Troubleshooting Cyclone Maloperations
Cyclone Collection Efficiency
Cyclone Design Factor
Cyclone Design Procedure
Nomenclature
GAS DRYER DESIGN
The Equations
Pressure Drop
Desiccant Reactivation
Nomenclature
EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
References
5. Instrument Sizing
INTRODUCTION
Variable-Head Meters
Macroscopic Mechanical Energy Balance
Variable-Head Meters
Orifice Sizing for Liquid and Gas Flows
Orifice Sizing for Liquid Flows
Orifice Sizing for Gas Flows
Orifice Sizing for Gas Flow
Types of Restriction Orifice Plates
Case Study 1
Nomenclature
CONTROL VALVE SIZING
Introduction
Control Valve Characteristics
Pressure Drop for Sizing
Choked Flow
Flashing and Cavitation
Control Valve Sizing for Liquid, Gas, Steam and Two-Phase Flows
Liquid Sizing
Gas Sizing
Critical Condition
Steam Sizing
Two-Phase Flow
Installation
Noise
Control Valve Sizing Criteria
Valve Sizing Criteria
Self-Acting Regulators
Types of Self-Acting Regulators
Case Study 2
Rules of Thumb
Nomenclature
References
6. Pumps and Compressors Sizing
PUMPS
INTRODUCTION
Pumping of Liquids
Pump Design Standardization
Basic Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
Impellers
Casing
Shaft
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SELECTION
Single-Stage (Single Impeller) Pumps
Hydraulic Characteristics for Centrifugal Pumps
Friction Losses Due to Flow
Velocity Head
Friction
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH) AND PUMP SUCTION
General Suction System
Reductions in NPSHR
Corrections to NPSHR for Hot Liquid Hydrocarbons and Water
Charting NPSHR Values of Pumps
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Specific Speed
“Type Specific Speed”
Rotative Speed
Pumping Systems and Performance
System Head Using Two Different Pipe Sizes in Same Line
POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR PUMPING THROUGH PROCESS LINES
Hydraulic Power
Relations Between Head, Horsepower, Capacity, Speed
Brake Horsepower (BHP) Input at Pump
AFFINITY LAWS
Pump Parameters
Specific Speed, Flowrate and Power Required by a Pump
Pump Sizing of Gas-Oil
Debutanizer Unit
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP EFFICIENCY
Centrifugal Pump Specifications
Pump Specifications (Figures 6.43a and b)
Steps in Pump Sizing
Reciprocating Pumps
Significant Features in Reciprocating Pump Arrangements
Application
Performance
Discharge Flow Patterns
HORSEPOWER
Pump Selection
Selection Rules-of-Thumb
A CASE STUDY
Pump Simulation on a PFD
Variables Descriptions
SIMULATION ALGORITHM
Problem
Discussion
Pump Cavitation
Factors in Pump Selection
COMPRESSORS
INTRODUCTION
General Application Guide
Specification Guides
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ANY TYPE OF COMPRESSOR FLOW CONDITIONS
Fluid Properties
Compressibility
Corrosive Nature
Moisture
Special Conditions
Specification Sheet
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Cooling Water to Cylinder Jackets
Heat Rejected to Water
Drivers
Ideal Pressure – Volume Relationship
Actual Compressor Diagram
DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL GAS LAWS: COMPRESSIBILITY
Adiabatic Calculations
Charles’ Law at Constant Pressure
Amonton’s Law at Constant Volume
Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws
Entropy Balance Method
Isentropic Exponent Method
COMPRESSION RATIO
Horsepower
Single Stage
Theoretical Hp
Actual Brake Horsepower, Bhp
Actual Brake Horsepower, Bhp (Alternate Correction for Compressibility)
Temperature Rise – Adiabatic
Temperature Rise – Polytropic
A CASE STUDY USING UNISIM DESIGN R460.1 SOFTWARE FOR A TWO–STAGE COMPRESSION
CASE STUDY 2
Solution
1. Starting UniSim Design Software
2. Creating a New Simulation
Saving the Simulation
3. Adding Components to the Simulation
Selecting a Fluids Package
5. Select the Units for the Simulation
6. Enter Simulation Environment
Accidentally Closing the PFD
Object Palette
7. Adding Material Streams
Specifying Material Streams
9. Adding A Compressor
Specifications
COMPRESSION PROCESS
Adiabatic
Isothermal
Polytropic
Efficiency
Head
ADIABATIC HEAD DEVELOPED PER SINGLE-STAGE WHEEL
Polytropic Head
Polytropic
Brake Horsepower
Speed of Rotation
TEMPERATURE RISE DURING COMPRESSION
Sonic or Acoustic Velocity
MACH NUMBER
Specific Speed
COMPRESSOR EQUATIONS IN SI UNITS
Polytropic Compressor
Adiabatic Compressor
Efficiency
Mass Flow Rate, w
Mechanical Losses
Estimating Compressor Horsepower
Multistage Compressors
Multicomponent Gas Streams
AFFINITY LAWS
Speed
Impeller Diameters (Similar)
Impeller Diameter (Changed)
Effect of Temperature
AFFINITY LAW PERFORMANCE
TROUBLESHOOTING OF CENTRIFUGAL AND RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
NOMENCLATURE
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
Nomenclature
Subscripts
Greek Symbols
References
Pumps
Bibliography
References
Compressors
Bibliography
7. Mass Transfer
INTRODUCTION
VAPOR LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM
BUBBLE POINT CALCULATION
DEW POINT CALCULATION
EQUILIBRIUM FLASH COMPOSITION
Fundamental
The Equations
The Algorithm
Nomenclature
TOWER SIZING FOR VALVE TRAYS
Introduction
The Equations
Nomenclature
Greek Letters
PACKED TOWER DESIGN
Introduction
Pressure Drop
Flooding
Operating and Design Conditions
Design Equations
Packed Towers versus Trayed Towers
Economic Trade-Offs
Nomenclature
Greek Letters
DETERMINATION OF PLATES IN FRACTIONATING COLUMNS BY THE SMOKER EQUATIONS
Introduction
The Equations
Application to a Distillation Column
Rectifying Section:
Stripping Section:
Nomenclature
MULTICOMPONENT DISTRIBUTION AND MINIMUM TRAYS IN DISTILLATION COLUMNS
Introduction
Key Components
Equations Surveyed
Fractionating Tray Stability Diagrams
Areas of Unacceptable Operation
Foaming
Flooding
Entrainment
Weeping/Dumping
Fractionation Problem Solving Considerations
Mathematical Modeling
The Fenske’s Method for Total Reflux
The Gilliland Method for Number of Equilibrium Stages
The Underwood Method
Equations for Describing Gilliland’s Graph
Kirkbride’s Feed Plate Location
Nomenclature
Greek Letters
EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
References
Index
Also of Interest
Check out these other related titles from Scrivener Publishing
Cover
Half-Title Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Companion Web Page
Gratitude
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
8 Heat Transfer
Introduction
8.1 Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology
8.2 Details of Exchange Equipment
Assembly and Arrangement
Construction Codes
Thermal Rating Standards
Details of Stationary Heads
Exchanger Shell Types
8.3 Factors Affection Shell Selection
8.4 Common Combinations of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
AES
BEM
AEP
CFU
AKT
AJW
8.5 Thermal Design
8.5.1 Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer
8.5.2 Mean Temperature Difference or Log Mean Temperature Difference
8.5.3 Log Mean Temperature Difference Correction Factor, F
8.5.4 Correction for Multipass Flow through Heat Exchangers
Example 8.1. Calculation of LMTD and Correction
Example 8.2. Calculate the LMTD
Solution
Example 8.3. Heating of Glycerin in a Multipass Heat Exchanger
Solution
8.6 The Effectiveness – NTU Method
Example 8.4. Heating Water in a Counter-Current Flow Heat Exchanger
Solution
Example 8.5. LMTD and e-NTU Methods
Solution
Example 8.6
Solution
8.7 Pressure Drop, Δp
8.7.1 Frictional Pressure Drop
8.7.2 Factors Affecting Pressure Drop (Δp)
Tube-Side Pressure Drop, Δpf
Shell-Side Pressure Drop Δpf
Shell Nozzle Pressure Drop (Δpnoz)
Total Shell-Side Pressure Drop, Δptotal
8.8 Heat Balance
Heat Load or Duty
8.9 Transfer Area
Over Surface and Over Design
8.10 Fouling of Tube Surface
8.10.1 Prevention and Control of Gas-Side Fouling
8.11 Exchanger Design
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Plain or Bare Tubes
Example 8.7. Calculation of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient from Individual Components
8.12 Approximate Values for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients
Simplified Equations
8.12.1 Film Coefficients with Fluids Outside Tubes Forced Convection
Viscosity Correction Factor
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Water, hi
Shell-Side Equivalent Tube Diameter [39]
Shell-Side Velocities
8.13 Design and Rating of Heat Exchangers
Rating of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
8.13.1 Design of a Heat Exchanger
8.13.2 Design Procedure for Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Exchanger Design
8.13.3 Design Programs for a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Example 8.8. Convention Heat Transfer Exchanger Design
8.14 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design Procedure (SI Units)
Tubes
Tube-Side Pass Partition Plate
8.14.1 Calculations of Tube-Side Heat Transfer Coefficient
Example 8.9. Design of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (SI Units) Kern’s Method
Solution:
8.14.2 Pressure Drop for Plain Tube Exchangers
Total Tube-Side Pressure Drop
Tube-Side Condensation Pressure Drop
Shell Side
A Case Study Using UniSim
Shell-Tube Exchanger (STE) Modeler
Solution
8.15 Bell-Delaware Method
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U
Shell-Side Pressure (Δp)
Tube Pattern
Accuracy of Correlations Between Kern’s Method and the Bell-Delaware Method
8.16 Rapid Design Algorithms for Shell and Tube and Compact Heat Exchangers: Polley et al. [88]
8.17 Fluids in the Annulus of Tube-in-Pipe or Double Pipe Heat Exchanger, Forced Convection
Finned Tube Exchangers
Economics of Finned Tubes
Low-Finned Tubes, 16 and 19 Fins/In.
Finned Surface Heat Transfer
8.17.1 Pressure Drop Across Finned Tubes [166]
Design for Heat Transfer Coefficients by Forced Convection Using Radial Low-Fin Tubes in Heat Exchanger Bundles
8.17.2 Pressure Drop in Exchanger Shells Using Bundles of Low-Fin Tubes
Tube-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
8.17.3 Double Pipe Finned Tube Heat Exchangers
Finned Side Heat Transfer
Tube Wall Resistance
Tube-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
Fouling Factor
Finned Side Pressure Drop
8.17.4 Design Equations for the Rating of a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Process Conditions Required
Inner Pipe
Annulus
Vapor Service
Shell-Side Bare Tube
Shell Side (Finned Tube)
Annulus
8.17.5 Calculation of the Pressure Drop
Effect of Pressure Drop (Δp) on the Original Design
Nomenclature
Example 8.9
Solution
Heat Balance
Pressure Drop Calculations
Tube Side
Tube-Side Δp
Shell-Side Δp
8.18 Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers
Selection
8.19 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.19.1 Induced Draft
8.19.2 Forced Draft
General Application
Advantages – Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
Disadvantages
Mean Temperature Difference
8.19.3 Design Procedure for Approximation
8.19.4 Tube-Side Fluid Temperature Control
8.19.5 Rating Method for Air-Cooler Exchangers
The Equations
The Air Side Pressure Drop, Δpa (inch H2O)
Example 8.10
Solution
8.19.6 Operations of Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.19.7 Monitoring of Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
8.20 Spiral Heat Exchangers
8.21 Spiral Coils in Vessels
8.22 Heat-Loss Tracing for Process Piping
The Equations
Example 8.11
Solution
In SI Units
8.23 Boiling and Vaporization
8.23.1 Boiling
8.23.2 Vaporization
8.23.3 Vaporization During Flow
8.24 Heating Media
8.25 Batch Heating and Cooling of Fluids
Batch Heating: Internal Coil: Isothermal Heating Medium
Example 8.12. Batch Heating: Internal Coil Isothermal Heating Medium
Solution
Batch Reactor Heating and Cooling Temperature Prediction
Example 8.13: Batch Reactor Heating and Cooling Temperature Prediction
Solution
Batch Cooling: Internal Coil Isothermal Cooling Medium
Example 8.14 Batch Cooling: Internal Coil, Isothermal Cooling Medium
Solution
Batch Heating: Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Example 8.15: Batch Heating with Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Solution
Batch Cooling: Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Example 8.16: Batch Cooling Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Solution
Batch Heating: External Heat Exchanger, Isothermal Heating Medium
Example 8.17: Batch Heating: External Heat Exchanger Isothermal Heating Medium
Solution
Batch Cooling: External Heat Exchanger, Isothermal Cooling Medium
Example 8.18: Batch Cooling: External Heat Exchanger, Isothermal Cooling Medium
Solution
Batch Cooling: External Heat Exchanger (Counter-Current Flow), Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Example 8.19: Batch Cooling: External Heat Exchanger (Counter-Current Flow), Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Solution
Batch Heating: External Heat Exchanger and Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Example 8.20: Batch Heating: External Heat Exchanger and Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Solution
Batch Heating: External Heat Exchanger (1-2 Multipass Heat Exchangers), Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Example 8.21: External Heat Exchanger (1-2 Multipass Heat Exchangers), Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Solution
Batch Cooling: External Heat Exchanger (1-2 Multipass), Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Example 8.22: External Heat Exchanger (1-2 Multipass), Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Solution
Batch Heating and Cooling: External Heat Exchanger (2-4 Multipass Heat Exchangers Non-Isothermal Heating Medium)
Batch Heating and Cooling: External Heat Exchanger (2-4 Multipass Heat Exchangers Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium)
Example 8.23: External Heat Exchanger (2-4 Multipass Exchanger), Non-Isothermal Heating Medium
Example 8.24: External Heat Exchanger (2-4 Multipass Heat Exchangers), Non-Isothermal Cooling Medium
Heat Exchanger Design with Computers
Functionality
Physical Properties
UniSim Heat Exchanger Model Formulations
A Case Study: Kettle Reboiler Simulation Using UniSim STE
Nozzle Data
Process Data
Appendix
References
Appendix A Heat Transfer
9 Process Integration and Heat Exchanger Network
Introduction
Application of Process Integration
Pinch Technology
Heat Exchanger Network Design
Energy and Capital Targeting and Optimization
Optimization Variables
Optimization of the Use of Utilities (Utility Placement)
Heat Exchanger Network Revamp
Heat Recovery Problem Identification
The Temperature-Enthalpy Diagram (T-H)
Energy Targets
Construction of Composite Curves
Heat Recovery for Multiple Systems
Example 9.1. Setting Energy Targets and Heat Exchanger Network
Solution
The Heat Recovery Pinch and Its Significance
The Significance of the Pinch
The Plus-Minus Principle for Process Modifications
A Targeting Procedure: The Problem Table Algorithm
The Grand Composite Curve
Placing Utilities Using the Grand Composite Curve
Stream Matching at the Pinch
The Pinch Design Approach to Inventing a Network
Heat Exchanger Network Design (HEN)
The Design Grid
Network Design Above the Pinch
The Intermediate Temperatures in the Streams are:
Network Design Below the Pinch
The Intermediate Temperatures in the Streams are:
Above the Pinch
Below the Pinch
Example 9.2
Solution
Design for Threshold Problems
Stream Splitting
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stream Splitting
Example 9.3 (Source: Seider
3rd ed. Wiley, 2009 [26])
Solution
Example 9.4: Source - Manufacture of cellulose acetate fiber, by Robin Smith (Chemical Process Design and Integration, John Wiley, 2007 [34])
Stream Data Extraction
Solution
Heat Exchanger Area Targets
Example 9.5. (Source: R. Smith, Chemical Process Design, McGraw-Hill, 1995 [20])
Solution
Example 9.6
Solution
HEN Simplification
Heat Load Loops
Example 9.7. Test Case 3, TC3 Linnhoff and Hindmarch [30]
Solution
Heat Load Paths
Number of Shells Target
Implications for HEN Design
Capital Cost Targets
Capital Cost
Network Capital Cost (CC)
Total Cost Targeting
Energy Targeting
Supertargeting or ΔTmin Optimization
Example 9.8. HEN for Maximum Energy Recovery (Warren D. Seider et al. [26])
Solution
Summary: New Heat Exchanger Network Design
Targeting and Design for Constrained Matches
Process Constraints
Targeting for Constraints
Heat Engines and Heat Pumps for Optimum Integration
Principle of Operation
Heat Pump Evaluation
Application of a Heat Pump
Appropriate Integration of Heat Engines
Opportunities for Placement of Heat Engines
Appropriate Integration of Heat Pumps
Opportunities for Placement of Heat Pumps
Appropriate Placement of Compression and Expansion in Heat Recovery Systems
Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer in Process Integration
Total Site Analysis
Applications of Process Integration
Hydrogen Pinch Studies
Oxygen Pinch
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Management
Mass and Water Pinch
Site-Wide Integration
Flue Gas Emissions
Pitfalls in Process Integration
Pinch to Target CO2 Emissions
Pinch Technology in Petroleum and Chemical Industries
Conclusions
Industrial Applications: Case Studies
Case study-1: (From Gary Smith and Ajit Patel, The Chemical Engineer, p. 26, November 1987).
Solution
Case study-2: Crude Preheat Train
Process Description
Solution
Above the Pinch
Below the Pinch
Case Study-3: Network for Aromatics Plant (G. T. Polley, and M.H. Panjeh Shahi, Trans. Inst. ChemE., Vol. 69, Part A, November 1991)
Introduction
Process Description
Stream Data Extraction
Solution
Glossary of Terms
Summary and Heuristics
Heuristics
Nomenclature
References
Bibliography
10 Process Safety and Pressure-Relieving Devices
Introduction
10.1 Types of Positive Pressure-Relieving Devices
Pressure Relief Valve
Pilot-Operated Safety Valves
10.2 Types of Valves/Relief Devices
Conventional Safety Relief Valve
Balanced Safety Relief Valve
Special Valves
10.3 Rupture Disk
Example 10.1
Hypothetical Vessel Design, Carbon Steel Grade A-285, Gr C
10.4 Design Pressure of a Vessel
10.5 Materials of Construction
Safety and Relief Valves; Pressure-Vacuum Relief Values
10.6 Rupture Disks
General Code Requirements [1]
Relief Mechanisms
Reclosing Devices, Spring Loaded
Non-Reclosing Pressure-Relieving Devices
Pressure Settings and Design Basis
10.7 Unfired Pressure Vessels Only, But Not Fired or Unfired Steam Boilers
External Fire or Heat Exposure Only and Process Relief
10.8 Relieving Capacity of Combinations of Safety Relief Valves and Rupture Disks or Non-Reclosure Devices (Reference ASME Code, Par. UG-127, U-132)
Selected Portions of ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Quoted by Permission [1]
10.9 Establishing Relieving or Set Pressures
Safety and Safety Relief Valves for Steam Service
10.10 Selection and Application
10.11 Capacity Requirements Evaluation for Process Operation (Non-Fire)
Installation
10.12 Selection Features: Safety, Safety Relief Valves, and Rupture Disks
10.13 Calculations of Relieving Areas: Safety and Relief Valves
10.14 Standard Pressure Relief Valves Relief Area Discharge Openings
10.15 Sizing Safety Relief Type Devices for Required Flow Area at Time of Relief
10.16 Effects of Two-Phase Vapor-Liquid Mixture on Relief Valve Capacity
10.17 Sizing for Gases or Vapors or Liquids for Conventional Valves with Constant Backpressure Only
Procedure
Establish Critical Flow for Gases and Vapors
Example 10.2
Flow through Sharp Edged Vent Orifice (Adapted after Ref. [41])
10.18 Orifice Area Calculations [42]
10.19 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure Relief Valves Requiring Capacity Certification [5d]
10.20 Sizing Valves for Liquid Relief: Pressure Relief Valves Not Requiring Capacity Certification [5d]
10.21 Reaction Forces
Example 10.3
Solution
Example 10.4
Solution
10.22 Calculations of Orifice Flow Area using Pressure-Relieving Balanced Bellows Valves, with Variable or Constant Back Pressure
10.23 Sizing Valves for Liquid Expansion (Hydraulic Expansion of Liquid-Filled Systems/Equipment/Piping)
10.24 Sizing Valves for Subcritical Flow: Gas or Vapor but not Steam [5d]
10.25 Emergency Pressure Relief: Fires and Explosions Rupture Disks
10.26 External Fires
10.27 Set Pressures for External Fires
10.28 Heat Absorbed
The Severe Case
10.29 Surface Area Exposed to Fire
10.30 Relief Capacity for Fire Exposure
10.31 Code Requirements for External Fire Conditions
10.32 Design Procedure
Example 10.5
Solution
10.33 Runaway Reactions: DIERS
10.34 Hazard Evaluation in the Chemical Process Industries
10.35 Hazard Assessment Procedures
10.36 Exotherms
10.37 Accumulation
10.38 Thermal Runaway Chemical Reaction Hazards
10.39 Heat Consumed Heating the Vessel. The .-Factor
10.40 Onset Temperature
10.41 Time-to-Maximum Rate
10.42 Maximum Reaction Temperature
10.43 Vent Sizing Package (VSP)
10.44 Vent Sizing Package 2TM (VSP2TM)
10.45 Advanced Reactive System Screening Tool (ARSST)
10.46 Two-Phase Flow Relief Sizing for Runaway Reaction
10.47 Runaway Reactions
10.48 Vapor Pressure Systems
10.49 Gassy Systems
10.50 Hybrid Systems
10.51 Simplified Nomograph Method
10.52 Vent Sizing Methods
10.53 Vapor Pressure Systems
10.54 Fauske’s Method
10.55 Gassy Systems
10.56 Homogeneous Two-Phase Venting Until Disengagement
10.57 Two-Phase Flow Through an Orifice
10.58 Conditions of Use
10.59 Discharge System
Design of the Vent Pipe
10.60 Safe Discharge
10.61 Direct Discharge to the Atmosphere
Example 10.6
Tempered Reaction
Solution
Example 10.7
Solution
Example 10.8
Solution
Example 10.9
Solution
10.62 DIERS Final Reports
10.63 Sizing for Two-Phase Fluids
Step 1. Calculate the Saturated Omega Parameter, ωs
Step 2. Determine the Subcooling Region
Step 3. Determine if the Flow is Critical or Subcritical
Step 4. Calculate the Mass Flux
Step 5. Calculate the Required Area of the PRV
SI Units
Example 10.10
Solution
Example 10.11
Solution
Type 2. (Omega Method): Sizing for Two-Phase Flashing Flow with a Noncondensable Gas Through a Pressure Relief Valve [5]
Example 10.12
SI Units
Example 10.13
Solution
Type 3 Integral Method [5]
Example 10.14 [66]
Solution
Glossary
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Nomenclature
Subscripts
Greek Symbols
References
Listing of Final Reports from the DIERS Research Program (Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems)
Project Manual
Technology Summary
Sm 540 All/Large-Scale Experimental Data and Analysis
Bench-Scale Apparatus Design and Test Results
11 Chemical Kinetics and Reactor Design
INTRODUCTION
INDUSTRIAL REACTION PROCESSES
Conventional Reactors
Membrane Reactors
Spherical Reactors
Bioreactors
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Conversion Type
Equilibrium Type
Kinetic Type
IDEAL REACTORS
Conversion Reactor
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Heats of Reaction
Equilibrium Reactor
Gibbs Reactor
CSTR Reactor
PFR Reactor
NON-IDEAL REACTORS
Modular Analysis
Multiscale Analysis
BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
Models of Enzyme Kinetics
Constant Volume Batch Reactor
CHEMICAL REACTION HAZARDS INCIDENTS
Reactive Hazards Incidents
Chemical Reactivity Worksheet (CRW)
Protective Measures for Runaway Reactions
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Example 11.1
Solution
Example 11.2
Solution
Example 11.3
Solution
Example 11.4
Solution
Example 11.5
Solution
Example 11.6
Solution
Example 11.7
Solution
Example 11.8
Solution
Example 11.9
Solution
Example 11.10
Solution
Example 11.11
Solution
Example 11.12
Solution
Example 11.13
Solution
Example 11.14
Solution
Example 11.15
Solution
References
12 Engineering Economics
INTRODUCTION
GROSS PROFIT ANALYSIS
CAPITAL COST ESTIMATION
Equipment/Plant Cost Estimations by Capacity Exponents
Factored Cost Estimate
Functional-Unit Estimate
Percentage of Delivered Equipment Cost
PROJECT EVALUATION
Cash Flow
Cumulated Cash Flow
Return on Investment (ROI)
Payback Period (PBP)
Present Worth (or Present Value)
Net Present Value (NPV)
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR)
Net Return Rate (NRR)
Depreciation
Double Declining Balance (DDB) Depreciation
Capitalized Cost
Average Rate of Return (ARR)
Present Value Ratio (Present Worth Ratio)
Profitability
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Inflation
EXAMPLES AND SOLUTIONS
Example 12.1
Solution
Example 12.2
Solution
Example 12.3
Solution
Example 12.4
Solution
Example 12.5
Solution
Example 12.6
Solution
Example 12.7
Solution
Example 12.8
Solution
Example 12.9
Solution
Example 12.10
Solution
Nomenclature
Carbon Tax
References
13 Optimization in Chemical/Petroleum Engineering
Optimal Operating Conditions of a Boiler
Optimum Distillation Reflux
Features of Optimization Problems
Objective Functions for Reactors
Linear Programming (LP) For Blending
LP Software
The Excel Solver
Problem Solution
Example 13.1
Solution
Example 13.2
Solution
Example 13.3
Solution
A Case Study: Optimum Reactor Temperature [10]
Solution
Optimization of Product Blending Using Linear Programming
Introduction
Blending Processes
Non-Linear Octane Blending Formula
Gasoline Blending
Gasoline Blending Example – 3 Blend Stocks, 2 Specifications
Non-Linear Programming
Example 13.4
Solution
Mathematical Formulation
Problem Solution
Example 13.5
Solution
A Case Study [15]
Solution
Notation
References
Further Reference
Epilogue
PROCESS SIMULATORS
MS Excel
Mathworks Matlab
Process Simulators
Chemstations Chemcad
Aspen Hysys and Aspen Plus
Specialized Software
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Good Habits for Process Simulation [3]
Build a Simulation Model to Meet an Objective
Identify the System or Process and Draw and Envelope Around It
Imagine What is Going on Physically
Translate the Physical Model to a Mathematical Model
Know Your Components
Know the Context of Your Feed Streams
Know Your Components Boiling Points
Keep Track of the Units of Measure in All Calculations
Always Do a Simple Material and Energy Balance First
Plot the Phase Envelope for Important Streams
Caution in Using Process Simulators
Conclusion
References
Index
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