Challenging Bias in Forensic Psychological Assessment and Testing: Theoretical and Practical Approaches to Working with Diverse Populations

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Glossary
Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Part I: Present Day Issues in Forensic Psychological Assessment
1. Forensic Context Assessment: Some Current Challenges
Introduction
Discriminating as a Result of Psychological Testing
Psychometric Test Use in the Forensic Context
Developments in Forensic Risk Assessment
Reliability and Validity
Part I: Present Day Issues in Forensic Psychological Assessment
Issues of Culture and Developments in Thinking around Dynamic Risk Factors
Challenges to the Actuarial Approach, Risk Classification, and the Impact of "DACES" on Assessment
The Positive Contribution of Technology in Improving Parity and Inclusivity
Part II: Forensic Practice and Working with Biases
Part III: Diversity and Forensic Populations: Theoretical and Practical Approaches
Some Final Comments
References
2. Challenging Bias in the Forensic Context: Lived Experiences
Introduction
Journey within Forensic Psychology
Experience of EDI Agenda
Leadership
"What Now?"
Conclusion
Note
References
3. The Role of Dynamic Risk Factors in Forensic Assessment and Treatment Planning
Introduction: Forensic Assessment and Treatment Planning
The Role of Dynamic Risk Factors in Assessment and Formulation
Conceptual Problems with the Reliance on Dynamic Risk Factors
Alternative Case Formulation Models
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
4. Why Dynamic Risk Factors Cannot Be Applied Universally: Their Normative Nature and the Importance of Cultural Awareness in Risk Assessment and Intervention
Introduction
Importance of Equivalence in Forensic Psychology
Potential Bias and Ways to Mitigate It
Construct Equivalence Threatened by Construct Bias
Structural Equivalence Threatened by Construct or Item Bias
Measurement Equivalence Threatened by Method or Item Bias
Full Score Equivalence Threatened by Method or Item Bias
Why Dynamic Risk Factors Cannot Be Assessed in a Culturally Sensitive Manner
A Framework for Culturally Sensitive Identification of the Causes of Crime
Implications for Practice
Conclusion
Note
References
5. The Validity of Reconviction as a Proxy Measure for Re-offending: Interpreting Risk Measures and Research in the Light of False Convictions and Detection and Conviction Evasion Skills (DACES) and Processes
Introduction
The Nature of Detection and Conviction Vulnerability, Evasion Skills, and Contextual Influences on These
Construct Validity and the Concept of Risk
Bias in Identification of True Positives
Systemic: Social and Interpersonal Dynamics
Intrapersonal: Skills and Propensities of the Individual
Bias in Identification of False Negatives
The "Dark Figure"
Level of Surveillance
Innocent People Wrongly Convicted: False Positives
Interpreting Research into Interventions Using Reconviction Rates as a Measure of Efficacy
Potential Impact of Therapeutic Interventions on DACES
Cultures That Prevent or Inhibit Offence Disclosure
Comparing Clinical Judgement with Actuarial Modelling Is Comparing Apples and Oranges
Beginnings of a Model for Incorporating DACES into Risk Assesment and Formulation
Clinical Implications
Risk Assessment Considerations
Broadening Your Clinical Risk Formulation: Assessing DACES
Carrying Out a DACES Assessment
Implications for Research and the Future Development of DACES
Concluding Comments
References
6. Measuring What Matters: Standardised Risk Levels for Criminal Recidivism Risk
Introduction
Statement of Problem
Solution - The Justice Center's 5-Level System
Core Assumptions
Benefits of the 5-Level System
Increasing Consistency in Risk-Level Placements
Clear Implications for Action
Improved Risk Communication
Advantages for Corrections Administration
Risk Assessment Bias
Challenges
Directions for Future Research
Conclusion
References
7. The Cumulative Modelling of Risk
Introduction
Psychometrics and Risk Assessment
The Cumulative Scale
The Scalogram
The Rasch Model
Mokken Scaling
Idiographic Caution Indices
Application of Cumulative Modelling in Risk Assessment
Evaluating an Existing Risk Assessment Instrument
Developing Our Own Bespoke Risk Assessment Instrument
Using Our Cumulative Risk Assessment Instrument
Misfit as an Index of Predictability
Misfit as an Index of Model Adequacy in the Face of Diversity
Example
Overall Conclusion
Some Final Notes
Available Free Software
References
Appendix A Worked Example of Sato's Caution Index
8. What Works in the Digital Age? VR and Smartphone Applications for Forensic Psychology
What Works in the Digital Age? VR and Smartphone Applications for Forensic Psychology
Results
Method
Risk Assessment
VR for Risk Assessment
Smartphone Apps for Risk Assessment
Offender Rehabilitation
VR for Rehabilitation
Smartphone Apps for Rehabilitation
Reintegration
VR for Reintegration
Smartphone Apps for Reintegration
Discussion
Points of Attention Related to VR and Apps
References
9. Assessment and Intervention Technologies in Juvenile Justice
Introduction
e-Mental Health for Justice-Involved Adults as a Point of Comparison
Telemental Health and mHealth
Telepsychology
Telepsychiatry
Phone- and Text Messaging-Based Services
Online Forums and Social Media
Primarily or Partially Digitised Intervention Programmes
Computerised Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Other Digital Therapeutic Interventions
Computerised Educational Interventions
Computerised Cognitive Training
Simulation Games
Computerised Assessments
Systematic or Anecdotal Indicators of Advantages and Disadvantages of e-Mental Health
Multicultural Diversity and the Available e-Mental Health Research for Juvenile Justice
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
10. Implications and Considerations for Conducting Remote Forensic Evaluations in Underserved and Marginalised Communities
Introduction
Forensic Mental Health Services in Rural and Economically Disadvantaged Regions
Causes and Consequences of Service Disparities: A Brief Lay of the Land
The Role of Technology in Closing the Gap
Benefits of Remote FMHA
Remote FMHA Is Not a Universal Remedy
Managing an Effective Remote FMHA Practice
Recommended Training and Credentials
Initiating a Remote System, Environment, and Workflow
Basic Videosystem Set-Up
Remote Evaluations Involving Jail Staff or Court Personnel
Remote Evaluations with Examinees in the Community
Modifying the Evaluation Procedure for Virtual Administration
Improving Court Communications
To Conduct a Remote Evaluation or Not: Making an Informed Decision
Policy and Advocacy Considerations
Enhancing Interjurisdictional Practice
Recruiting and Retaining New Talent and Early Career Professionals
Note
References
Part II: Forensic Practice and Working with Biases
11. Supervising Assessment Practice
Introduction
An Overview of Practice Supervision
An Overview of Assessment Practice
Supervising Assessment and Testing Practice
Addressing the Limitations of Practitioner Self-Report
Supervisor Skills and Competence in Identifying and Addressing Bias
Monitoring through Self-Supervision
Unconscious Bias and Cultural Competence
Is the Potential for Bias Always a Problem?
Conclusion
Notes
References
12. The Power Threat Meaning Framework: Implications for Practice within the Criminal Justice System
Introduction
Case Example
Assessments of Risk Which Fail to Account for Trauma
We Confuse Non-Compliance with Risk
We Assume What Others Want or Need
We Confuse Ruptures to the Relationship with Risk
We Make Incorrect Assumptions about the Meaning of What People Say or Don't Say
Biased Attention within the CJS
A Traumatised CJS?
How Workers Can Take Up Roles within a Traumatised CJS - Fictional Examples
Implications for Practice
Reframe Offending as a Threat Response
Talk Explicitly about Power
Use It to Help a Traumatised System
Acknowledgements
References
13. Individual Bias in Forensic Practice
Overview
Bias in Decision Making
Bias in the Cognitive Processes of Decision Making
Summary of the Research
A Model to Consider Biases in Forensic Practice
First Fallacy
Ethical Issues
Second Fallacy
Bad Apples
Third Fallacy
Expert Immunity
Fourth Fallacy
Technological Protection
Fifth Fallacy
Blind Spot
Sixth Fallacy
Illusion of Control
Considering Personal Factors Biases: Attitudes
Considering Personal Factors Biases: Attitudes
Addressing Individual Biases
Reflecting Capacity
Types of Possible Bias
Anxiety States
Attitudes
Diversity
Trauma
Personality
Professional and Organisational Biases
Ways of Considering Types of Bias
Taking It Forwards - Think before You Write!
Note
References
14. Cultural Bias in Forensic Assessment: Considerations and Suggestions
Introduction
Bias in Racial Difference
Different Types of Assessment
Bias in the Interview
Bias in Psychometric Assessment
Discussion
Background Research on Culture
Service User Involvement and Cultural Consultants
Conclusion
Note
References
15. Personal Construct Psychology and Repertory Grids: Acknowledging and Exploring Perspectives
Introduction
Whose Meanings?
An Integrative Approach
Making Sense "with", Not Just "of"
Repertory Grids
Tight and Loose Construing
Making Sense of Culture, Tackling Bias, and Negotiating Change
Conclusion
References
16. Using Social Media Data in Forensic Evaluations: Addressing Bias
Using Social Media Data in Forensic Evaluations: Addressing Bias
What We Know about Social Media Evidence in Clinical and Forensic Mental Health Practice
Estimates of Social Media Use
Is There Evidence of a Social Media Bias?
Underpinnings and Awareness of Bias
Where Do We Go from Here?
Recommendations for Using Social Media Data to Inform FMHA
Practical Case Exercises
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Conclusion
Note
References
Part III: Diversity and Forensic Populations: Theoretical and Practical Approaches
17. Gender-Sensitive Violence Risk Assessment
Introduction
Definition of Gender
Gender Bias in Forensic Assessment
Stereotypes with Respect to Offending
Gender Differences in Offending and Mental Health Needs
Risk Factors for Violence in Women
Protective Factors for Violence in Women
The Value of Commonly Used Risk Assessment Instruments in Women
Gender-Sensitive Violence Risk Assessment Instruments
Concluding Remarks and Recommendations for Clinical Practice
References
18. Critical Reflection on Gender Identity Assessments with Trans and Gender Non-Binary Individuals: Challenges, Implications, and a Newly Proposed Approach in Forensic Psychology
Introduction
Trans as a Shifting Concept
Gender Identity Assessments
The Psychologist's Predicament in Secure Forensic Settings
The Power Threat Meaning Framework as Applied to Trans Care
Final Practical Considerations
References
19. Neurodiversity
Neurodiversity Assessment in Forensic Contexts
The New Paradigm of Neurodiversity, Its Definitions, and Terms
Impact of Mental Health Conditions
Socio-Historic Influences on Neurominority Diagnosis
Gender
Race/Ethnicity
Socio-Economic status
Intersectionality
Identifying Neurodiversity in Forensic Contexts
Assessment of Neurodiversity in Forensic Contexts
Considerations in Terms of Test Use
Further Testing Considerations for Neurodiversity and Forensic Contexts
Complexity in Causal Factors/Decision Making
Functional Priorities
Case Formulation and Implications for Testing
Providing Support
Implications of Unaddressed Needs
Existing Resources for Support
Recommended Activities
Future Considerations
Note
References
Appendix 1 Glossary of terms
20. Forensic Risk Assessment in Learning Disability Populations
Introduction
Current Issues in Assessing Risk in LD
Philosophical Differences in Assessing Risk in LD Services
Understanding Protective Factors
Cultural Considerations and Risk Assessment
Considerations for Practice
Concluding Thoughts
References
21. Challenging Bias in Forensic Psychological Assessment and Treatment for People with ADHD
Introduction
What Is ADHD?
What Causes ADHD?
How Is ADHD Diagnosed?
Why Is ADHD Diagnosis Important in Forensic Settings?
What Is Bias?
What Is Diversity?
Culture and Ethnic Diversity
Gender Diversity
Religion/Spirituality
Age Diversity
Comorbid Diagnoses
Treatment
Recommendations
Summary
References
22. Deaf People in Forensic Contexts
History of Deafness and the CJS
Specialised Forensic Services
Models for Understanding Deafness
Visual Communication
Language Deprivation
Deafness and Mental Health
Deafness and the Law
Psychological and Mental Health Assessments
Assessments of Communication
Ability and Aptitude Assessments
Knowledge and Skills Specific to Court
Mental Health and Personality Disorder Assessments
Risk Assessment
Norm Group Issues
Acknowledgement
References
23. Criminally Diverse Offending
Introduction
Criminal Versatility and Specialisation
Versatility and Specialisation in Particular Offence Types
Sexual Offending
Intimate Partner Violence
Fire Setting
Violence
What Underlies Criminal Versatility?
Ethnicity and Criminal Versatility
Diagnosis Redux: The Dangers of "Specialism" and Silo Working
A Treatment Model for Criminally Diverse Individuals
Group and Individual Processes
Sexual Offending and Toxic Shame
Summary and Conclusions
References
24. Challenging Bias in the Assessment of Extremist Offending
Introduction
Setting the Scene
Contextual Issues in the Assessment of Extremist Offending
Terminology
Race, Power, and Privilege
Assessing Potential Extremist Risk Before a Crime Has Been Committed
Methodological Issues in Assessing Extremist Offending
Low Rate of Offending and Recidivism
Frameworks for Assessing Extremist Offending
Assessor Bias
Assessor Antipathy and Reputational Risk
Assessor Sympathy
Deception and the Absence of Behavioural Manifestations of Risk
Expertise Regarding Social and Political Context
Assessor/Assessee Dynamics
Conclusion
Notes
References
25. The Assessment of Psychopathy
The Concept of Psychopathy
Assessing Psychopathy
The Psychopathy Checklist Family of Assessments
CAPP
DSM-5
Additional Self-Report Measures
The Method of Assessment
Individual Factors Impacting Assessment
Gender
Cognitive Functioning
Culture
Ethnicity
Implications for Practice
Conclusion
References
26. Technological Assessment Methods: New Directions in the Assessment of Sexual Offending and Sexualised Violence
Introduction
Assessment Purposes
Case Formulation
Risk of Future Harm
Intervention Planning
Assessing Change
Diagnosis
Technological Assessments
Sexual Interests and Sexual Violent Offending
Scale of the Problem
Psychophysiological Assessments of Offence-Sexual Interests
Technological Assessment of Deviant Sexual Interest Using VR
Technological Assessments of Reactive and Proactive Aggression
Technological Assessment of Impulse Control/Impulsivity
Technological Measures of Response Inhibition
Go/No-Go Task
Stop-Signal Task
CPT
Technological Measures of Impulsive or Risky Decision-Making
Delay and Probability Discounting
The IGT
The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART)
Conclusions
References
27. Challenging Bias in Cross-Cultural Forensic Psychology Assessment and Testing: A Summary Perspective
Introduction
Rethinking the Cultural Context of Construct Validity
Moving Forward with Epistemic Reform in Construct Validity
Rethinking Ethical Practice
Moving Forward with Ethical Practice
Strengthening Cross-Cultural Competence
Moving Forward with Cross-Cultural Competence
Cross-Cultural Case Formulation
Evidence-Based Supervision
Reflective Practice
Concluding Thoughts
References
Index