Cellular Physiology and Metabolism of Physical Exercise: Topical Clinical Issues

Contents
Human Evolution and Physical Exercise: The Concept of Being “Born to Run”
1 The Concept of Being Born to Run
2 From 5 Billion to 1 Million Years Ago
3 The Appearance of the Genus Homo
References
Cell Morphology and Function: The Specificities of Muscle Cells
1 Introduction
2 Striated Skeletal Muscles
3 Muscle Contraction
4 Muscle Fiber Classification
Further Reading
The Cell Membrane of the Contractile Unit
1 Cell Membranes
2 The Structure of the Cell Membrane
Lipids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Membrane Asymmetry
3 Functions of the Cell Membrane
Transport
Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
Immune System
4 Membrane Receptors
5 The Sarcolemma
References
Gene Polymorphisms and Athletic Performance
1 Introduction
2 What Happens When the Balance in the Human Body Is Modified?
3 Human Performance Shows a Wide Variety of Responses
4 Can Genes Predict Athletic Performance?
5 Genetic Variability Between Individuals
6 Genetic Polymorphisms of the Enzymes Involved in DNA Methylation and Synthesis in Elite Athletes
Further Reading
Mitochondrial and Non-mitochondrial Studies of ATP Synthesis
1 Introduction
2 In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
1H-MRS
13C-MRS
31P-MRS
3 Mitochondrial Function Assessed by 31P-MRS
Mitochondrial Function During Exercise as Assessed by 31P-MRS
4 Measurement of TCA Cycle Flux (VTCA)
5 Anaerobic Sources of ATP
Glycolytic Flux
PCr Breakdown
Glycogen
6 Integrative View
References
Excessive Nutrients and Regional Energy Metabolism
1 Introduction
2 Excessive Ectopic Fat Accumulation and Abnormal Regulation of Insulin-Dependent Metabolic Pathways
Skeletal Muscle
Heart
Liver
3 Excessive Ectopic Fat Accumulation as the Consequence of Increased Adipose-Derived FFA Flux
4 The Association of Excessive Ectopic Fat Accumulation and Abnormalities of Energy Metabolism
Skeletal Muscle
Heart
Liver
5 Conclusion
References
Muscle Biopsy to Investigate Mitochondrial Turnover
1 Skeletal Muscle Biopsy
2 Skeletal Muscle Function and Mitochondria
3 Mitochondrial Glucose and Fatty Acid Oxidation
4 Regulation of Mitochondrial Oxidative Metabolism
Energy Status
Exercise
Nutrition
Caloric Restriction
Fat and Glucose Substrates
Fatty Acids
Glucose
Substrate-Induced Metabolic Alterations with Mitochondrial Impact
Oxidative Stress
Inflammation
5 Mitochondrial Function and Turnover in Human Skeletal Muscle
Exercise
Obesity and Insulin Resistance
Mitochondrial Function in Obese and Insulin-Resistant Patients
Mitochondrial Effects of Diet and Exercise in Obese and Insulin-Resistant Patients
Substrate Availability: Acute
Dietary Treatment
Exercise
Mitochondrial Effects of Insulin
Mitochondria and Insulin Resistance: Cause or Effect?
Aging and Chronic Wasting Diseases
Exercise in Aging and Chronic Wasting Disease
6 Conclusions
References
Introduction to the Tracer-Based Study of Metabolism In Vivo
1 Introduction
2 Basic Concepts
3 Mass-Balance Principle
4 A Hydraulic Analogy
5 Steady State and Turnover
6 Clearance Rate
7 Measurement of Turnover: The Essential Role of Tracer Experiments
8 Characteristics and Properties of a Tracer
9 The Constant-Infusion Technique
10 The Single-Injection Technique
11 Concluding Remarks
Reference
Further Reading
Physical Activity and Inflammation
1 Inflammation Is an Important Feature of Metabolic Diseases and Diabetes
Peripheral and Adipose Inflammation
Islet Inflammation
2 Effect of Physical Activity on Inflammation
3 Molecular Effect of Physical Activity
4 Physical Activity and miRNA: A Unifying Hypothesis
5 Conclusion
References
The HPA Axis and the Regulation of Energy Balance
1 Introduction
2 Anatomy of the HPA Axis
The Hypothalamus
The Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus–Pituitary Interaction
The Adrenal Cortex
3 Physiology of the HPA Axis
4 Molecular Mechanisms
5 HPA Axis and Energy Balance
Energy Intake
Glucocorticoids and Leptin
Glucocorticoids and Insulin
6 The HPA Axis and Non-homeostatic Energy Intake Regulation
7 The HPA Axis and Energy Expenditure
8 The Role of Glucocorticoids on Peripheral Organs
9 HPA Axis and Physical Activity
10 Glucocorticoids and Doping
References
Physical Exercise in Obesity and Anorexia Nervosa
1 Reduced Physical Activity in Industrialized Countries: A Potential Cause of the Obesity Pandemics?
2 Reduced Physical Activity: The Cause of Weight Gain in the Obese?
3 Can Humans Adapt Energy Expenditure to Energy Intake and Vice Versa?
4 Is Physical Activity a Meaningful Trait in Anorexia Nervosa?
5 Why Hyperactivity in Anorexia Nervosa?
6 Biological Basis of Activity-Based Anorexia
7 The Neuroendocrine Profile of AN Patients
8 Is Hyperactivity an Unfavorable Prognostic Behavior?
References
Physical Exercise and Transplantation
1 Introduction
2 Physical Work Capacity Before Transplantation
3 Physical Work Capacity After Transplantation
4 Exercise Therapy for Heart Transplant Recipients
5 Exercise Therapy for Lung-Transplant Recipients
6 Exercise Therapy for Kidney Transplant Recipients
7 Exercise Therapy for Liver Transplant Recipients
8 Exercise Therapy for Pancreas and Islet Transplant Recipients
Case Study: Exercise in an Islet-Transplanted Amateur Marathon Runner: Effects on Training, Autoimmunity, and Metabolic Profile
9 World Transplant Games
10 Conclusions
References
The Baboon as a Primate Model to Study the Physiology and Metabolic Effects of Exercise
1 Introduction: The Value of Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research
2 Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research
3 The Baboon as a New Model to Study Physical Activity and the Effects of Exercise
4 Summary
References
Specific Physical Exercises Adapt to Immune-Modulate the Nondiabetic and the Diabetic Individual and Reduce the Likelihood of Contagion by Respiratory Viruses-Like SARS-2 Coronavirus
1 Introduction
2 Effect of Exercise on the Immune System
3 Role of Physical Exercise-Induced Immunomodulation in Type 1 and 2 Diabetes
Diabetes and Oxidative Status
Diabetes and Inflammation
Impact of Exercise on Oxidative Stress in T2D
Impact of Exercise on Inflammation in T2D
Impact of Exercise on Cells of Immune System in Diabetes
4 SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Exercise-Induced Immunomodulation in Diabetes
Immune Function Impairments in Diabetes and Their Impact on COVID-19 Infection
The Role of Physical Activity in Diabetic Patients in Relation to COVID-19 Infection
References
Physical Exercise and Sexual Dysfunction
1 Physiology of Sexual Function in Man
2 Physiology of Sexual Function in Woman
3 Erectile Dysfunction
4 Physical Activity and Erectile Dysfunction
5 Mechanisms Linking Physical Activity and Male Sexual Function
6 Female Sexual Dysfunction
7 Physical Activity and Female Sexual Dysfunction
8 Mechanisms Linking Physical Activity and Female Sexual Function
References
Specific Physical Exercises Adapt to Patients with Obesity or with Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2)
1 Why We Should Keep Ourselves Physically Active
2 Exercise Can Positively Modulate Immunometabolism
Skeletal Muscle
Brain
Heart and Lungs
Gut
3 Exercise and Glucose Metabolism
Exercise in Type 2 Diabetes
Exercise in Type 1 Diabetes
4 Physical Activity in Obesity: What Can Really Be Done?
5 Concluding Remarks
References
Hypnosis and Sport
1 A Summary of Hypnosis’ History
2 Definition of Hypnosis
3 Hypnosis Can Help Athletes to Cope with Psychological Stress
4 Hypnosis to Reduce Stress and Mental Fatigue in Athletes
5 Conclusions
References
Physical Activity and Diabetic Retinopathy
1 Introduction
2 The Retinal Neurovascular Unit in DR
3 Multimodal Retinal Imaging for the Clinical Assessment of DR
4 Physical Activity and DR
5 From Clinical Aspects to Pathophysiology
Retinal Microvascular Function
Oxidative Stress
Neuronal Health
Inflammation
Other Possible Mechanisms
6 Conclusion
References