Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
Skills Exercises
Featured Figures
Acknowledgments
Detailed Contents
1 Evolution, the Themes of Biology, and Scientific Inquiry
Concept 1.1 The study of life reveals unifying themes
Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organization
Theme: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information
Theme: Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter
Theme: From Molecules to Ecosystems, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems
Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life
Classifying the Diversity of Life
Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection
The Tree of Life
Concept 1.3 In studying nature, scientists form and test hypotheses
Exploration and Observation
Gathering and Analyzing Data
Forming and Testing Hypotheses
The Flexibility of the Scientific Process
A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations
Variables and Controls in Experiments
Theories in Science
Concept 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints
Building on the Work of Others
Science, Technology, and Society
The Value of Diverse Viewpoints in Science
Unit 1 The Chemistry of Life
Interview: Kenneth Olden
2 The Chemical Context of Life
Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds
Elements and Compounds
The Elements of Life
Case Study: Evolution of Tolerance to Toxic Elements
Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms
Subatomic Particles
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
Isotopes
The Energy Levels of Electrons
Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties
Electron Orbitals
Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules and ionic compounds depend on chemical bonding between atoms
Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Weak Chemical Interactions
Molecular Shape and Function
Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
3 Water and Life
Concept 3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding
Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life
Cohesion of Water Molecules
Moderation of Temperature by Water
Floating of Ice on Liquid Water
Water: The Solvent of Life
Possible Evolution of Life on Other Planets
Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms
Acids and Bases
The pH Scale
Buffers
Acidification: A Threat to Our Oceans
4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is key to the origin of life
Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon
Molecular Diversity Arising from Variation in Carbon Skeletons
Concept 4.3 A few chemical groups are key to molecular function
The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
The Chemical Elements of Life: A Review
5 The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
The Diversity of Polymers
Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
Sugars
Polysaccharides
Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
Fats
Phospholipids
Steroids
Concept 5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
Amino Acids (Monomers)
Polypeptides (Amino Acid Polymers)
Protein Structure and Function
Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information
The Roles of Nucleic Acids
The Components of Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide Polymers
The Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules
Concept 5.6 Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications
DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution
Unit 2 The Cell
6 A Tour of the Cell
Concept 6.1 Biologists use microscopes and biochemistry to study cells
Microscopy
Cell Fractionation
Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
The Nucleus: Information Central
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
The Endomembrane System: A Review
Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another
The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
Peroxisomes: Oxidation
Concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility
Components of the Cytoskeleton
Concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities
Cell Walls of Plants
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
Cell Junctions
Concept 6.8 A cell is greater than the sum of its parts
7 Membrane Structure and Function
Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins
The Fluidity of Membranes
Evolution of Differences in Membrane Lipid Composition
Membrane Proteins and Their Functions
The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition
Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes
Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability
The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
Transport Proteins
Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by Proteins
Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients
The Need for Energy in Active Transport
How Ion Pumps Maintain Membrane Potential
Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein
Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
8 An Introduction to Metabolism
Concept 8.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy
Metabolic Pathways
Forms of Energy
The Laws of Energy Transformation
Concept 8.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously
Free-Energy Change,
Free Energy, Stability, and Equilibrium
Free Energy and Metabolism
Concept 8.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions
The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP
How ATP Provides Energy That Performs Work
The Regeneration of ATP
Concept 8.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers
The Activation Energy Barrier
How Enzymes Speed Up Reactions
Substrate Specificity of Enzymes
Catalysis in the Enzyme’s Active Site
Effects of Local Conditions on Enzyme Activity
The Evolution of Enzymes
8.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism
Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes
Localization of Enzymes Within the Cell
9 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
Concept 9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels
Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP
Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction
The Stages of Cellular Respiration:
Concept 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
Concept 9.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules
Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
The Citric Acid Cycle
Concept 9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
The Pathway of Electron Transport
Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism
An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration
Concept 9.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen
Types of Fermentation
Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis
Concept 9.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways
The Versatility of Catabolism
Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)
Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms
10 Photosynthesis
Concept 10.1 Photosynthesis feeds the biosphere
Concept 10.2 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants
Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis
The Two Stages of Photosynthesis:
Concept 10.3 The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
The Nature of Sunlight
Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors
Excitation of Chlorophyll by Light
A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex Associated with Light-Harvesting Complexes
Linear Electron Flow
Cyclic Electron Flow
A Comparison of Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
Concept 10.4 The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar
C4 Plants
Concept 10.5 Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates
Photorespiration: An Evolutionary Relic?
C4 Plants
CAM Plants
Concept 10.6 Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth: a review
11 Cell Communication
Concept 11.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell
Evolution of Cell Signaling
Local and Long-Distance Signaling
The Three Stages of Cell Signaling:
Concept 11.2 Signal reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor, causing it to change shape
Receptors in the Plasma Membrane
Intracellular Receptors
Concept 11.3 Signal transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions transmit signals from receptors to relay molecules in the cell
Signal Transduction Pathways
Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation
Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers
Concept 11.4 Cellular response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities
Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Responses
Regulation of the Response
Concept 11.5 Apoptosis requires integration of multiple cell-signaling pathways
Apoptosis in the Soil Worm Caenorhabditis elegans
Apoptotic Pathways and the Signals That Trigger Them
12 The Cell Cycle
Concept 12.1 Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells
Key Roles of Cell Division
Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material
Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division
Concept 12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle
Phases of the Cell Cycle
The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
Binary Fission in Bacteria
The Evolution of Mitosis
Concept 12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system
The Cell Cycle Control System
Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells
Unit 3 Genetics
Interview: Francisco Mojica
13 Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles
Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes
Inheritance of Genes
Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Concept 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle
The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
The Stages of Meiosis
Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations
14 Mendel and the Gene Idea
Concept 14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach
The Law of Segregation
The Law of Independent Assortment
Concept 14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance
The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to Monohybrid Crosses
Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the Rules of Probability
Concept 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics
Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene
Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Genes
Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype
A Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation
Concept 14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance
Pedigree Analysis
Recessively Inherited Disorders
Dominantly Inherited Disorders
Multifactorial Disorders
Genetic Testing and Counseling
15 The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Concept 15.1 Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes
Morgan’s Choice of Experimental Organism
Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with Behavior of a Chromosome Pair:
Concept 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance
The Chromosomal Basis of Sex
Inheritance of X-Linked Genes
X Inactivation in Female Mammals
Concept 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each other on the same chromosome
How Linkage Affects Inheritance
Genetic Recombination and Linkage
Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry
Concept 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders
Abnormal Chromosome Number
Alterations of Chromosome Structure
Human Conditions Due to Chromosomal Alterations
Concept 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance
Genomic Imprinting
Inheritance of Organelle Genes
16 The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Concept 16.1 DNA is the genetic material
The Search for the Genetic Material:
Building a Structural Model of DNA
Concept 16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair
The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a Template Strand
DNA Replication: A Closer Look
Proofreading and Repairing DNA
Evolutionary Significance of Altered DNA Nucleotides
Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules
Concept 16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins
17 Gene Expression: From Geneto Protein
Concept 17.1 Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation
Evidence from Studying Metabolic Defects
Basic Principles of Transcription and Translation
The Genetic Code
Concept 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: A Closer Look
Molecular Components of Transcription
Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
Concept 17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
Alteration of mRNA Ends
Split Genes and RNA Splicing
Concept 17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide:
Molecular Components of Translation
Building a Polypeptide
Completing and Targeting the Functional Protein
Making Multiple Polypeptides in Bacteria and Eukaryotes
Concept 17.5 Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function
Types of Small-Scale Mutations
New Mutations and Mutagens
Using CRISPR to Edit Genes and Correct Disease-Causing Mutations
What Is a Gene? Revisiting the Question
18 Regulation of Gene Expression
Concept 18.1 Bacteria often respond to environmental change by regulating transcription
Operons: The Basic Concept
Repressible and Inducible Operons: Two Types of Negative Gene Regulation
Positive Gene Regulation
Concept 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at many stages
Differential Gene Expression
Regulation of Chromatin Structure
Regulation of Transcription Initiation
Mechanisms of Post-transcriptional Regulation
Concept 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression
Effects on mRNAs by MicroRNAs and Small Interfering RNAs
Chromatin Remodeling and Effects on Transcription by ncRNAs
Concept 18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a multicellular organism
A Genetic Program for Embryonic Development
Cytoplasmic Determinants and Inductive Signals
Sequential Regulation of Gene Expression During Cellular Differentiation
Pattern Formation: Setting Up the Body Plan
Concept 18.5 Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control
Types of Genes Associated with Cancer
Interference with Normal Cell-Signaling Pathways
The Multistep Model of Cancer Development
Inherited Predisposition and Environmental Factors Contributing to Cancer
The Role of Viruses in Cancer
19 Viruses
Concept 19.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat
The Discovery of Viruses: Scientific Inquiry
Structure of Viruses
Concept 19.2 Viruses replicate only in host cells
General Features of Viral Replicative Cycles
Replicative Cycles of Phages
Replicative Cycles of Animal Viruses
Evolution of Viruses
Concept 19.3 Viruses and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants
Viral Diseases in Animals
Emerging Viral Diseases
Viral Diseases in Plants
Prions: Proteins as Infectious Agents
20 DNA Tools and Biotechnology
Concept 20.1 DNA sequencing and DNA cloning are valuable tools for genetic engineering and biological inquiry
DNA Sequencing
Making Multiple Copies of a Gene or Other DNA Segment
Using Restriction Enzymes to Make a Recombinant DNA Plasmid
Amplifying DNA: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Its Use in DNA Cloning
Expressing Cloned Eukaryotic Genes
Concept 20.2 Biologists use DNA technology to study gene expression and function
Analyzing Gene Expression
Determining Gene Function
Concept 20.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells are useful for basic research and other applications
Cloning Plants: Single-Cell Cultures
Cloning Animals: Nuclear Transplantation
Stem Cells of Animals
Concept 20.4 The practical applications of DNA-based biotechnology affect our lives in many ways
Medical Applications
Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles
Environmental Cleanup
Agricultural Applications
Safety and Ethical Questions Raised by DNA Technology
21 Genomes and Their Evolution
Concept 21.1 The Human Genome Project fostered development of faster, less expensive sequencing techniques
Concept 21.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyze genomes and their functions
Centralized Resources for Analyzing Genome Sequences
Identifying Protein-Coding Genes and Understanding Their Functions
Understanding Genes and Gene Expression at the Systems Level
Concept 21.3 Genomes vary in size, number of genes, and gene density
Genome Size
Number of Genes
Gene Density and Noncoding DNA
Concept 21.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a lot of noncoding DNA and many multigene families
Transposable Elements and Related Sequences
Other Repetitive DNA, Including Simple Sequence DNA
Genes and Multigene Families
Concept 21.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and mutation of DNA contribute to genome evolution
Duplication of Entire Chromosome Sets
Alterations of Chromosome Structure
Duplication and Divergence of Gene-Sized Regions of DNA
Rearrangements of Parts of Genes: Exon Duplication and Exon Shuffling
How Transposable Elements Contribute to Genome Evolution
Concept 21.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development
Comparing Genomes
Widespread Conservation of Developmental Genes Among Animals
Unit 4 Mechanisms of Evolution
22 Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life
Concept 22.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species
Endless Forms Most Beautiful
Scala Naturae and Classification of Species
Ideas About Change over Time
Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
Concept 22.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life
Darwin’s Research
Ideas from The Origin of Species
Key Features of Natural Selection
Concept 22.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change
Homology
The Fossil Record
Biogeography
What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life?
23 The Evolution of Populations
Concept 23.1 Genetic variation makes evolution possible
Genetic Variation
Sources of Genetic Variation
Concept 23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving
Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies
The Hardy-Weinberg Equation
Concept 23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population
Natural Selection
Genetic Drift
Gene Flow
Concept 24.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution
Natural Selection: A Closer Look
The Key Role of Natural Selection in Adaptive Evolution
Sexual Selection
Balancing Selection
Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms
24 The Origin of Species
Concept 24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation
The Biological Species Concept
Other Definitions of Species
Concept 24.2 Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation
Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation
Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation
Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Review
Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation
Patterns Within Hybrid Zones
Hybrid Zones and Environmental Change
Hybrid Zones over Time
Concept 24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes
The Time Course of Speciation
Studying the Genetics of Speciation
From Speciation to Macroevolution
25 The History of Life on Earth
Concept 25.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible
Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth
Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules
Protocells
Self-Replicating RNA
Concept 25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life
The Fossil Record
How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated
The Origin of New Groups of Organisms
Concept 25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of unicellular and multicellular organisms and the colonization of land
The First Single-Celled Organisms
The Origin of Multicellularity
The Colonization of Land
Concept 25.4 The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates
Plate Tectonics
Mass Extinctions
Adaptive Radiations
Concept 25.5 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of developmental genes
Effects of Developmental Genes
The Evolution of Development
Concept 25.6 Evolution is not goal oriented
Evolutionary Novelties
Evolutionary Trends
Unit 5 The Evolutionary History
of Biological Diversity
Interview: Penny Chisholm
26 Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Concept 26.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships
Binomial Nomenclature
Hierarchical Classification
Linking Classification and Phylogeny
What We Can and Cannot Learn from Phylogenetic Trees
Applying Phylogenies
Concept 26.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data
Morphological and Molecular Homologies
Sorting Homology from Analogy
Evaluating Molecular Homologies
Concept 26.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees
Cladistics
Phylogenetic Trees with Proportional Branch Lengths
Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood
Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses
Concept 26.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome
Gene Duplications and Gene Families
Genome Evolution
Concept 26.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time
Molecular Clocks
Applying a Molecular Clock: Dating the Origin of HIV
Concept 26.6 Our understanding of the tree of life continues to change based on new data
From Two Kingdoms to Three Domains
The Important Role of Horizontal Gene Transfer
27 Bacteria and Archaea
Concept 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success
Cell-Surface Structures
Motility
Reproduction
Internal Organization and DNA
Concept 27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in prokaryotes
Rapid Reproduction and Mutation
Genetic Recombination
Concept 27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes
The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
Nitrogen Metabolism
Metabolic Cooperation
Concept 27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into a diverse set of lineages
An Overview of Prokaryotic Diversity
Bacteria
Archaea
Concept 27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere
Chemical Recycling
Ecological Interactions
Concept 27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on humans
Mutualistic Bacteria
Antibiotic Resistance
Pathogenic Bacteria
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology
28 Protists
Concept 28.1 Most eukaryotes are singlecelled organisms
Structural and Functional Diversity in Protists
Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution
Four Supergroups of Eukaryotes
Concept 28.2 Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella
Diplomonads and Parabasalids
Euglenozoans
Concept 28.3 SAR is a highly diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities
Stramenopiles
Alveolates
Rhizarians
Concept 28.4 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of plants
Red Algae
Green Algae
Concept 28.5 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals
Amoebozoans
Opisthokonts
Concept 28.6 Protists play key roles in ecological communities
Symbiotic Protists
Photosynthetic Protists
29.1 Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land
Concept 29.1 Plants evolved from green algae
Evidence of Algal Ancestry
Adaptations Enabling the Move to Land
Derived Traits of Plants
The Origin and Diversification of Plants
29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes
Bryophyte Gametophytes
Bryophyte Sporophytes
The Ecological and Economic Importance of Mosses
Concept 29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall
Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants
Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants
The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants
30 Plant Diversity II: The Evolution of Seed Plants
Concept 30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land
Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes
Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants
Ovules and Production of Eggs
Pollen and Production of Sperm
The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds
Concept 30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones
The Life Cycle of a Pine
Early Seed Plants and the Rise of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperm Diversity
Concept 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits
Characteristics of Angiosperms
Angiosperm Evolution
Angiosperm Diversity
Concept 30.4 Human welfare depends on seed plants
Products from Seed Plants
Threats to Plant Diversity
31 Fungi
Concept 31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption
Nutrition and Ecology
Body Structure
Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi
Concept 31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles
Sexual Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Concept 31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist
The Origin of Fungi
The Move to Land
Concept 31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages
Cryptomycetes and Microsporidians
Zoopagomycetes
Mucoromycetes
Ascomycetes
Basidiomycetes
Concept 31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare
Fungi as Decomposers
Fungi as Mutualists
Practical Uses of Fungi
32 An Overview of Animal Diversity
Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers
Nutritional Mode
Cell Structure and Specialization
Reproduction and Development
Concept 32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years
Steps in the Origin of Multicellular Animals
Neoproterozoic Era (1 Billion–541 Million Years Ago)
Paleozoic Era (541–252 Million Years Ago)
Mesozoic Era (252–66 Million Years Ago)
Cenozoic Era (66 Million Years Ago to the Present)
Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterized by body plans
Symmetry
Tissues
Body Cavities
Protostome and Deuterostome Development
Concept 32.4 Views of animal phylogeny continue to be shaped by new molecular and morphological data
The Diversification of Animals
Future Directions in Animal Systematics
33 An Introduction to Invertebrates
Concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack tissues
Concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans
Medusozoans
Anthozoans
Concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body forms
Flatworms
Rotifers and Acanthocephalans
Ectoprocts and Brachiopods
Molluscs
Annelids
Concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group
Nematodes
Arthropods
Concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes
Echinoderms
Chordates
34 The Origin and Evolution of Vertebrates
Concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
Derived Characters of Chordates
Lancelets
Tunicates
Early Chordate Evolution
Concept 34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone
Derived Characters of Vertebrates
Hagfishes and Lampreys
Early Vertebrate Evolution
Concept 34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws
Derived Characters of Gnathostomes
Fossil Gnathostomes
Chondrichthyans (Sharks, Rays, and Their Relatives)
Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins
Concept 34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs
Derived Characters of Tetrapods
The Origin of Tetrapods
Amphibians
Concept 34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg
Derived Characters of Amniotes
Early Amniotes
Reptiles
Concept 34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk
Derived Characters of Mammals
Early Evolution of Mammals
Monotremes
Marsupials
Eutherians (Placental Mammals)
Concept 34.5 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion
Derived Characters of Humans
The Earliest Hominins
Australopiths
Bipedalism
Tool Use
Early Homo
Neanderthals
Homo sapiens
Unit 6 Plant Form and Function
35 Vascular Plant Structure, Growth, and Development
Concept 35.1 Plants have a hierarchical organization consisting of organs, tissues, and cells
Vascular Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves
Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues
Common Types of Plant Cells
Concept 35.2 Different meristems generate new cells for primary and secondary growth
Concept 35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
Primary Growth of Roots
Primary Growth of Shoots
Concept 35.4 Secondary growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants
The Vascular Cambium and Secondary Vascular Tissue
The Cork Cambium and the Production of Periderm
Evolution of Secondary Growth
Concept 35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body
Model Organisms: Revolutionizing the Study of Plants
Growth: Cell Division and Cell Expansion
Morphogenesis and Pattern Formation
Gene Expression and the Control of Cell Differentiation
Shifts in Development: Phase Changes
Genetic Control of Flowering
36 Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants
Concept 36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key steps in the evolution of vascular plants
Shoot Architecture and Light Capture
Root Architecture and Acquisition of Water and Minerals
Concept 36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over short or long distances
The Apoplast and Symplast: Transport Continuums
Short-Distance Transport of Water Across Plasma Membranes
Short-Distance Transport of Solutes Across Plasma Membranes
Long-Distance Transport: The Role of Bulk Flow
Concept 36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots via the xylem
Absorption of Water and Minerals by Root Cells
Transport of Water and Minerals into the Xylem
Bulk Flow Transport via the Xylem
Xylem Sap Ascent by Bulk Flow:
Concept 36.4 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata
Stomata: Major Pathways for Water Loss
Mechanisms of Stomatal Opening and Closing
Stimuli for Stomatal Opening and Closing
Effects of Transpiration on Wilting and Leaf Temperature
Adaptations That Reduce Evaporative Water Loss
Concept 36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via the phloem
Movement from Sugar Sources to Sugar Sinks
Bulk Flow by Positive Pressure: The Mechanism of Translocation in Angiosperms
Concept 36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic
Changes in Plasmodesmatal Number and Pore Size
Phloem: An Information Superhighway
Electrical Signaling in the Phloem
37 Soil and Plant Nutrition
Concept 37.1 Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem
Soil Texture
Topsoil Composition
Soil Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture
Concept 37.2 Plant roots absorb many types of essential elements from the soil
Essential Elements
Symptoms of Mineral Deficiency
Global Climate Change and Food Quality
Concept 37.3 Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms
Bacteria and Plant Nutrition
Fungi and Plant Nutrition
Epiphytes, Parasitic Plants, and Carnivorous Plants
38 Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology
Concept 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are key features of the angiosperm life cycle
Flower Structure and Function
Methods of Pollination
The Angiosperm Life Cycle: An Overview
Development of Female Gametophytes (Embryo Sacs)
Development of Male Gametophytes in Pollen Grains
Seed Development and Structure
Sporophyte Development from Seed to Mature Plant
Fruit Structure and Function
Concept 38.2 Flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization
Totipotency, Vegetative Reproduction, and Tissue Culture
Concept 38.3People modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering
Plant Breeding
Plant Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
The Debate over Plant Biotechnology
39 Plant Responses to Internal and External Signals
Concept 39.1 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response
Reception
Transduction
Response
Concept 39.2 Plants use chemicals to communicate
General Characteristics of Plant Hormones
A Survey of Plant Hormones
Concept 39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success
Blue-Light Photoreceptors
Phytochrome Photoreceptors
Biological Clocks and Circadian Rhythms
The Effect of Light on the Biological Clock
Photoperiodism and Responses to Seasons
Concept 39.4 Plants respond to a wide variety of stimuli other than light
Gravity
Mechanical Stimuli
Environmental Stresses
Concept 39.5 Plants respond to attacks by pathogens and herbivores
Defenses Against Pathogens
Defenses Against Herbivores
Unit 7 Animal Form and Function
Interview: Steffanie Strathdee
40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
Concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
Exchange with the Environment
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
Coordination and Control
Concept 40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals
Regulating and Conforming
Homeostasis
Concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior
Endothermy and Ectothermy
Variation in Body Temperature
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
Physiological Thermostats and Fever
Concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
Energy Allocation and Use
Quantifying Energy Use
Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
Influences on Metabolic Rate
Torpor and Energy Conservation
41 Animal Nutrition
Concept 41.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients
Essential Nutrients
Variation in Diet
Dietary Deficiencies
Assessing Nutritional Needs
Concept 41.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
Digestive Compartments
Concept 41.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
Digestion in the Stomach
Digestion in the Small Intestine
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Processing in the Large Intestine
Concept 41.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet
Dental Adaptations
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
Mutualistic Adaptations
Concept 41.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
Regulation of Digestion
Regulation of Energy Storage
Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
42 Circulation and Gas Exchange
Concept 42.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body
Gastrovascular Cavities
Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
Concept 42.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals
Mammalian Circulation
The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look
Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
Concept 42.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels
Blood Vessel Structure and Function
Blood Flow Velocity
Blood Pressure
Capillary Function
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System
Concept 42.4 Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense
Blood Composition and Function
Cardiovascular Disease
Concept 42.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange
Respiratory Media
Respiratory Surfaces
Gills in Aquatic Animals
Tracheal Systems in Insects
Lungs
Concept 42.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs
How an Amphibian Breathes
How a Bird Breathes
How a Mammal Breathes
Control of Breathing in Humans
Concept 42.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange
Respiratory Pigments
Respiratory Adaptations of Diving Mammals
43 The Immune System
Concept 43.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens
Innate Immunity of Invertebrates
Innate Immunity of Vertebrates
Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens
Concept 43.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition
Antigen Recognition by B Cells and Antibodies
Antigens as the Trigger for Adaptive Immunity
Antigen Recognition by T Cells
B Cell and T Cell Development
Concept 43.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells
Helper T Cells: Activating Adaptive Immunity
B Cells and Antibodies: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens
Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Host Cells
Summary of the Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses
Immunization
Active and Passive Immunity
Antibodies as Tools
Immune Rejection
Concept 43.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease
Exaggerated, Self-Directed, and Diminished Immune Responses
Evolutionary Adaptations of Pathogens That Underlie Immune System Avoidance
Cancer and Immunity
44 Osmoregulation and Excretion
Concept 44.1 Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes
Osmoregulatory Challenges and Mechanisms
Osmosis and Osmolarity
Energetics of Osmoregulation
Transport Epithelia in Osmoregulation
Concept 44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat
Forms of Nitrogenous Waste
The Influence of Evolution and Environment on Nitrogenous Wastes
Concept 44.3 Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme
Survey of Excretory Systems
Concept 44.4 The nephron is organized for stepwise processing of blood filtrate
From Blood Filtrate to Urine:
Solute Gradients and Water Conservation
Adaptations of the Vertebrate Kidney to Diverse Environments
Concept 44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure
Homeostatic Regulation of the Kidney
45 Hormones and the Endocrine System
Concept 45.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways
Intercellular Information Flow
Chemical Classes of Hormones
Cellular Hormone Response Pathways
Endocrine Tissues and Organs
Concept 45.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone pathways
Simple Endocrine Pathways
Simple Neuroendocrine Pathways
Feedback Regulation
Coordination of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems
Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway
Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Concept 45.3 Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior
Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium
Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress
Sex Hormones
Hormones and Biological Rhythms
Evolution of Hormone Function
46 Animal Reproduction
Concept 46.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction
Reproductive Cycles
Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma
Concept 46.2 Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species
Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
Gamete Production and Delivery
Concept 46.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes
Human Male Reproductive Anatomy
Human Female Reproductive Anatomy
Gametogenesis
Concept 46.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals
Biological Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation in Human Sexuality
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles
Human Sexual Response
Concept 46.5 In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus
Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth
Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus
Contraception and Abortion
Modern Reproductive Technologies
47 Animal Development
Concept 47.1 Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development
Fertilization
Cleavage
Concept 47.2 Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival
Gastrulation
Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes
Organogenesis
The Cytoskeleton in Morphogenesis
Concept 47.3 Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals regulate cell fate
Fate Mapping
Axis Formation
Restricting Developmental Potential
Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals
Cilia and Cell Fate
48 Neurons, Synapses,and Signaling
Concept 48.1 Neuron structure and organization reflect function in information transfer
Neuron Structure and Function
Introduction to Information Processing
Concept 48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron
Formation of the Resting Potential
Modeling the Resting Potential
Concept 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons
Hyperpolarization and Depolarization
Graded Potentials and Action Potentials
Generation of Action Potentials:
Conduction of Action Potentials
Concept 48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses
Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials
Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
Termination of Neurotransmitter Signaling
Modulated Signaling at Synapses
Neurotransmitters
49 Nervous Systems
Concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System
Glia
Concept 48.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized
Arousal and Sleep
Biological Clock Regulation
Emotions
Functional Imaging of the Brain
Concept 48.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions
Information Processing
Language and Speech
Lateralization of Cortical Function
Frontal Lobe Function
Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates
Concept 48.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning
Neuronal Plasticity
Memory and Learning
Long-Term Potentiation
Concept 48.5 Many nervous system disorders can now be explained in molecular terms
Schizophrenia
Depression
Alzheimer’s Disease
The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction
Parkinson’s Disease
Future Directions in Brain Research
50 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
Concept 50.1 Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system
Sensory Reception and Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and Adaptation
Types of Sensory Receptors
Concept 50.2 In hearing and equilibrium, mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid or settling particles
Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates
Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals
Hearing and Equilibrium in Other Vertebrates
Concept 50.3 The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on lightabsorbing pigments
Evolution of Visual Perception
The Vertebrate Visual System
Concept 50.4 The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors
Taste in Mammals
Smell in Humans
Concept 50.5 The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function
Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle
Other Types of Muscle
Concept 50.6 Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion
Types of Skeletal Systems
Types of Locomotion
51 Animal Behavior
Concept 51.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors
Fixed Action Patterns
Migration
Behavioral Rhythms
Animal Signals and Communication
Concept 51.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior
Experience and Behavior
Learning
Concept 51.3 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behaviors
Evolution of Foraging Behavior
Mating Behavior and Mate Choice
Concept 51.4 Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the evolution of behavior
Genetic Basis of Behavior
Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behavior
Altruism
Inclusive Fitness
Evolution and Human Culture
Unit 8 Ecology
52 An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
Concept 52.1 Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is changing rapidly
Global Climate Patterns
Regional and Local Effects on Climate
Effects of Vegetation on Climate
Microclimate
Global Climate Change
Concept 52.2 The distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate and disturbance
Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
Disturbance and Terrestrial Biomes
Concept 52.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
Zonation in Aquatic Biomes
Concept 52.4 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species
Dispersal and Distribution
Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors
Concept 52.5 Ecological change and evolution affect one another over long and short periods of time
53 Population Ecology
Concept 53.1 Biotic and abiotic factors affect population density, dispersion, and demographics
Density and Dispersion
Demographics
Concept 53.2 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment
Changes in Population Size
Exponential Growth
Concept 53.3 The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity
The Logistic Growth Model
The Logistic Model and Real Populations
Concept 53.4 Life history traits are products of natural selection
Diversity of Life Histories
“Trade-offs” and Life Histories
Concept 53.5 Density-dependent factors regulate population growth
Population Change and Population Density
Mechanisms of Density-Dependent Population Regulation
Population Dynamics
Concept 53.6 The human population is no longer growing exponentially but is still increasing extremely rapidly
The Global Human Population
Global Carrying Capacity
54 Community Ecology
Concept 54.1 Interactions between species can help, harm, or have no effect on the individuals involved
Competition
Exploitation
Positive Interactions
Concept 54.2 Diversity and trophic structure characterize biological communities
Species Diversity
Diversity and Community Stability
Trophic Structure
Species with a Large Impact
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Controls
Concept 53.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition
Characterizing Disturbance
Ecological Succession
Human Disturbance
Concept 53.4 Biogeographic factors affect community diversity
Latitudinal Gradients
Area Effects
Island Equilibrium Model
Concept 53.5 Pathogens alter community structure locally and globally
Effects on Community Structure
Community Ecology and Zoonotic Diseases
55 Ecosystems and Restoration Ecology
Concept 55.1 Physical laws govern energy flow and chemical cycling in ecosystems
Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Mass
Energy, Mass, and Trophic Levels
Concept 55.2 Energy and other limiting factors control primary production in ecosystems
Ecosystem Energy Budgets
Primary Production in Aquatic Ecosystems
Primary Production in Terrestrial Ecosystems
Concept 55.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10% efficient
Production Efficiency
Trophic Efficiency and Ecological Pyramids
Concept 55.4 Biological and geochemical processes cycle nutrients and water in ecosystems
Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling Rates
Biogeochemical Cycles
Case Study: Nutrient Cycling in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
Restoration ecologists return degraded ecosystems to a more natural state
Bioremediation
Ecosystems:
Biological Augmentation
56 Conservation Biology and Global Change
Concept 56.1 Human activities threaten earth’s biodiversity
Three Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity and Human Welfare
Threats to Biodiversity
Can Extinct Species Be Resurrected?
Concept 56.2 Population conservation focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical habitat
Extinction Risks in Small Populations
Critical Habitat
Weighing Conflicting Demands
Concept 56.3 Landscape and regional conservation help sustain biodiversity
Landscape Structure and Biodiversity
Establishing Protected Areas
Urban Ecology
Concept 56.4 Earth is changing rapidly as a result of human actions
Nutrient Enrichment
Toxins in the Environment
Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change
Depletion of Atmospheric Ozone
Concept 56.5 Sustainable development can improve human lives while conserving biodiversity
Sustainable Development
The Future of the Biosphere
Appendix A Answers
Appendix B Classification of Life
Appendix C A Comparison of the Light Microscope and the
Electron Microscope
Appendix D Scientific Skills Review
Credits
Glossary
Index
