Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Coursebook with CD-ROM

Contents
How to use this book vi
Chapter 1: Moles and equations 1
Masses of atoms and molecules 2
Accurate relative atomic masses 3
Amount of substance 5
Mole calculations 6
Chemical formulae and chemical equations 10
Solutions and concentration 14
Calculations involving gas volumes 18
Chapter 2: Atomic structure 24
Elements and atoms 25
Inside the atom 25
Numbers of nucleons 28
Isotopes 28
How many protons, neutrons and electrons? 29
Chapter 3: Electrons in atoms 32
Simple electronic structure 33
Evidence for electronic structure 34
Subshells and atomic orbitals 37
Electronic configurations 38
Orbitals and the Periodic Table 40
Patterns in ionisation energies in the
Periodic Table 41
Chapter 4: Chemical bonding 48
Types of chemical bonding 49
Ionic bonding 49
Covalent bonding 51
Shapes of molecules 55
More molecular shapes 56
Metallic bonding 58
Intermolecular forces 60
Hydrogen bonding 64
Bonding and physical properties 66
Chapter 5: States of matter 72
States of matter 73
The gaseous state 73
The liquid state 77
The solid state 78
Simple molecular lattices 80
Carbon nanoparticles 82
Conserving materials 83
Chapter 6: Enthalpy changes 89
What are enthalpy changes? 90
Standard enthalpy changes 92
Measuring enthalpy changes 94
Hess’s law 97
Enthalpy change of reaction from enthalpy
changes of formation 97
Enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy
changes of combustion 98
Calculating the enthalpy change of hydration of an
anhydrous salt 99
Bond energies and enthalpy changes 99
Calculating enthalpy changes using
bond energies 101
Chapter 7: Redox reactions 106
What is a redox reaction? 107
Redox and electron transfer 108
Oxidation numbers 109
Redox and oxidation number 110
Naming compounds 111
From name to formula 112
Balancing chemical equations using oxidation
numbers 112
Chapter 8: Equilibrium 116
Reversible reactions and equilibrium 117
Changing the position of equilibrium 119
Equilibrium expressions and the equilibrium
constant, K c 123
Equilibria in gas reactions: the equilibrium
constant, K p 127
Equilibria and the chemical industry 129
Acid-base equilibria 130
Chapter 9: Rates of reaction 140
Reaction kinetics 141
The effect of concentration on rate of reaction 143
The effect of temperature on rate of reaction 143
Catalysis 144
Enzymes 145
Chapter 10: Periodicity 148
Structure of the Periodic Table 149
Periodicity of physical properties 149
Periodicity of chemical properties 154
iii
Oxides of Period 3 elements 156
Chlorides of Period 3 elements 158
Chapter 11: Group 2 163
Physical properties of Group 2 elements 164
Reactions of Group 2 elements 165
Thermal decomposition of Group 2 carbonates
and nitrates 168
Some uses of Group 2 compounds 169
Chapter 12: Group 17 171
Physical properties of Group 17 elements 172
Reactions of Group 17 elements 173
Reactions of the halide ions 175
Disproportionation 177
Uses of the halogens and their compounds 178
Chapter 13: Nitrogen and sulfur 180
Nitrogen gas 181
Ammonia and ammonium compounds 182
Uses of ammonia and ammonium compounds 183
Sulfur and its oxides 185
Sulfuric acid 185
Chapter 14: Introduction to organic
chemistry 188
Representing organic molecules 189
Functional groups 192
Naming organic compounds 192
Bonding in organic molecules 193
Structural isomerism 194
Stereoisomerism 195
Organic reactions – mechanisms 196
Types of organic reaction 198
Chapter 15: Hydrocarbons 201
The homologous group of alkanes 202
Sources of the alkanes 202
Reactions of alkanes 204
The alkenes 207
Addition reactions of the alkenes 208
Oxidation of the alkenes 210
Addition polymerisation 211
Tackling questions on addition polymers 213
Chapter 16: Halogenoalkanes 217
Nucleophilic substitution reactions 218
Mechanism of nucleophilic substitution in
halogenoalkanes 220
Elimination reactions 222
Uses of halogenoalkanes 222
Chapter 17: Alcohols, esters and carboxylic
acids 225
The homologous series of alcohols 226
Reactions of the alcohols 226
Carboxylic acids 231
Chapter 18: Carbonyl compounds 234
The homologous series of aldehydes and
ketones 235
Preparation of aldehydes and ketones 236
Reduction of aldehydes and ketones 237
Nucleophilic addition with HCN 237
Testing for aldehydes and ketones 238
Reactions to form tri-iodomethane 240
Infra-red spectroscopy 241
Chapter P1: Practical skills 1 246
Review of practical knowledge and
understanding 247
Manipulation, measurement and observation 249
Presentation of data and observations 250
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 251
Chapter 19: Lattice energy 257
Defining lattice energy 258
Enthalpy change of atomisation and
electron affinity 258
Born–Haber cycles 259
Factors affecting the value of lattice energy 262
Ion polarisation 263
Enthalpy changes in solution 265
Chapter 20: Electrochemistry 273
Redox reactions revisited 274
Electrolysis 275
Quantitative electrolysis 276
Electrode potentials 278
Measuring standard electrode potentials 282
Using E
O —
values 284
Cells and batteries 293
More about electrolysis 295
Chapter 21: Further aspects of equilibria 303
The ionic product of water, K w 304
pH calculations 305
Weak acids – using the acid dissociation
constant, K a 307
Indicators and acid–base titrations 309
Buffer solutions 313
iv
Equilibrium and solubility 316
Partition coefficients 319
Chapter 22: Reaction kinetics 324
Factors affecting reaction rate 325
Rate of reaction 325
Rate equations 330
Which order of reaction? 332
Calculations involving the rate constant, k 334
Deducing order of reaction from raw data 335
Kinetics and reaction mechanisms 338
Catalysis 340
Chapter 23: Entropy and Gibbs free energy 349
Introducing entropy 350
Chance and spontaneous change 350
Calculating entropy changes 354
Entropy and temperature 357
Entropy, enthalpy changes and free energy 357
Gibbs free energy 358
Gibbs free energy calculations 360
Chapter 24: Transition elements 366
What is a transition element? 367
Physical properties of the transition elements 369
Redox reactions 369
Ligands and complex formation 371
Chapter 25: Benzene and its compounds 381
The benzene ring 382
Reactions of arenes 384
Phenol 387
Reactions of phenol 388
Chapter 26: Carboxylic acids and their
derivatives 393
The acidity of carboxylic acids 394
Oxidation of two carboxylic acids 395
Acyl chlorides 396
Chapter 27: Organic nitrogen compounds 400
Amines 401
Formation of amines 402
Amino acids 404
Peptides 405
Reactions of the amides 406
Electrophoresis 407
Chapter 28: Polymerisation 411
Condensation polymerisation 412
Synthetic polyamides 413
Biochemical polymers 414
The importance of hydrogen bonding in DNA 418
Polyesters 421
Designing useful polymers 422
Degradable polymers 425
Polymer deductions 426
Chapter 29: Analytical chemistry 433
Chromatography 434
Proton ( 1 H) nuclear magnetic resonance 439
Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy 444
Mass spectrometry 446
Chapter 30: Organic synthesis 456
Designing new medicinal drugs 457
Chapter P2: Practical skills 2 464
Written examination of practical skills 465
Planning 465
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 468
Appendix 1: The Periodic Table of the
Elements 473
Appendix 2: Selected standard electrode
potentials 474
Appendix 3: Qualitative analysis notes 475
Glossary 477
Index 486
Acknowledgements 493
v
Introduction to the examination and changes
to the syllabus
Advice on how to revise for and approach
examinations
Answers to end-of-chapter questions
Recommended resources