Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents Page
List of figures
Introduction
Definition of terms
Figure 1.001: Schematic illustration of the difference between technique and technology.
Figure 1.002: Pictured craftsmanship.
Figure 1.003: Diagram shows the different categories of craftsmanship explained in the text
Figure 1.004: Single steps of a metallurgical chain
Figure 1.005: Percentage distribution of the individual object groups in the study.
Figure 1.006: Ratio of the examined object groups to the overall findings in regard to the periods and regions.
Figure 1.007: Typological sheet after Montelius (1885) supplemented by Åberg (1936)
Figure 1.008: Chronology scheme of the early and middle Bronze Age, with comparisons to south and west Europe
Figure 1.009: Modelled (shaded) and unmodelled (un-shaded) calibrated age probability distributions, grouped by periods
Figure 1.010: C-14 data from the oak-coffin burials of Melhøj
Figure 1.011: The grave goods of the Skrydstrup burial, Haderslev Amt
Figure 1.012: The grave goods of the Egtved burial, Vejle Amt
Figure 1.013: The grave goods from the female burial in Borum Eshøj, Aarhus Amt
Figure 1.014: Regional groupings on Zealand during NBA II
Figure 1.015: Regional groupings on Jutland and the Island Fyn during NBA II and III
Figure 1.016: Regional groupings of the Early and Middle Bronze Age in Germany
Figure 1.017: The distribution of the examined object groups within the Bronze Age periods.
Figure 1.018: The Egtved burial
Figure 1.019: Wobst´s target groups of stylistic messages
Figure 1.020: Burial from Wardböhmen ‘Hengstberg’
Figure 1.021: Classification chart of neck collar 1 (based on Nørgaard 2011).
Figure 1.021: Classification chart of neck collar 1
Figure 1.022: Classification chart of neck collar 2
Figure 1.023: Classification chart of neck collar 3 (based on Nørgaard 2011).
Figure 1.024: The NBA IB collar from Kurcewo with the additional hoard ensemble
Figure 1.025: Remains of organic material on the reverse side of the neck collar from Kværkeby, København Amt
Figure 1.026: The classification of small belt discs into the eight described types.
Figure 1.027: The diagram shows the different types of small belt discs and their type of deposition.
Figure 1.028: The typological classification of belt plates.
Figure 1.029: The hoard from Svenstrup, Sorø Amt.
Figure 1.030: Distribution of tutuli examined within this study.
Figure 1.031: Classification of ribbed tutuli
Figure 1.032: Distribution of tutuli in NBA III in Mecklenburg
Figure 1.033: Pin types associated with neck collars in the Bronze Age in northern Europe
Figure 1.034: Wheel-headed pin from Rehlingen, Lower Saxony
Figure 1.035: Classification of wheel-headed and disc-headed pins
Figure 1.036: Distribution of wheel-headed pins Lüneburg-type
Figure 1.037: Distribution of wheel-headed pins southwest of the Elbe River
Figure 1.038: Spiral-decorated disc-headed pin from Heitbrack, Lower Saxony
Figure 1.039: Distribution of disc-headed pins in regard to their decoration southwest of the Elbe River
Figure 1.040: Distribution of disc-headed pins in regard to their decoration in Mecklenburg
Figure 1.041: The disc-head pin Weitgendorf-type from Weisin, Mecklenburg
Figure 1.042: The workshop in Feudvar
Figure 1.043: Crucibles and moulds from Feudvar
Figure 1.044: Metal working activities related to settlements during the early Bronze Age (left) and the younger Bronze Age (right)
Figure 1.045: The house in Torslev
Figure 1.046: The deposit from Génelard, Saône-et-Loire, France
Figure 1.047: Distribution of bronze anvils in Europe
Figure 1.048: Tool deposit from Murnau, Upper Bavaria
Figure 1.049: Deposit from Gussage All Saints, Dorset, with bone tools and bronze ingots
Figure 1.050: Excavation sketch from the Leubingen grave
Figure 2.001: Distribution of finds in the periods.
Figure 2.002: The Bell Beaker Cultures
Figure 2.003: The beehive-shaped box from the hoard in Skeldal
Figure 2.004: Geometric decoration of two Fårdrup Axes from the National Museum in Copenhagen.
Figure 2.005: The individual steps in the production of the Tinsdahl neck-ring-set
Figure 2.006: The individual steps in the production of the cast neck collar from Hohenlockstedt (Schleswig) in northwest Germany
Figure 2.007: The individual steps in crafting a fibula Lüneburg-type
Figure 2.008: A chisel-like tool similar to the pictured one could, after Drescher have caused the decorative notches on the neck collar from Hohenlockstedt
Figure 2.009: The copper wire of the spiral punch is coiled, as illustrated in the drawing by J. Kraglund
Figure 2.010: The fan-like structures in the centre of the spirals of several examined artefacts, like Rye on Zealand (B7612 and B7618), Karow in Mecklenburg (ALM Br.88); Weitgendorf in Brandenburg (MM II8302).
Figure 2.011: The bronze anvils with grooves found in the Nordic Bronze Age
Figure 2.012: Different wooden tools and spatula used to make the embossed neck collar within the exclusion experiment
Figure 2.013: Production steps of an embossed neck collar:
Figure 2.014: Comparison of the spirals on the embossed collar and the neck collar
Figure 2.015: Comparison of the spirals of the embossed neck collar (A) and a neck collar from Rye, Holbæk (B7612).
Figure 2.016: Comparison of the rib-group of the embossed collar (A) and the collar of Weitgendorf II, Kr. Prignitz
Figure 2.017: Two belt plates experimentally produced: made via cire perdue cast (A) and punched by the goldsmith Boas (B).
Figure 2.018: Characteristic differences between cast- and cold-worked bronze ornaments.
Figure 2.019: Several errors, such as interruptions in decoration, assign the bronze plate as a medium quality cast.
Figure 2.020: Characteristic markers of punched decorative elements.
Figure 2.021: Characteristic markers of hand-applied spirals.
Figure 2.022: Negative pattern is recognisable on the reverse side of the hammered plate (A) and not on the cast plate (B).
Figure 2.023: Different hearth constructions, from a simple fire place to a melting oven
Figure 2.024: Wall paintings of the Old Kingdom displaying i.e. workers carrying crucibles with wooden sticks
Figure 2.025: Single steps of the lost wax-method
Figure 2.026: Different surface structures of the neck collar from the Vellinge Mose hoard on the Danish Island Fyn (NM 25787).
Figure 2.027: Variation of the cire perdue cast used in West Africa
Figure 2.028: Dendritic structures visible on the surface of the belt disc VM 1680KJ.
Figure 2.029: Cast skin on the small belt discs from Vognserup Enge
Figure 2.030: Difference between reworked and cast decoration on the belt plate (VM1680KC) from the Vognserup hoard.
Figure 2.031: Cast (top) and reworked (bottom) humps of the belt disc (VM 1680KL) from the Vognserup hoard.
Figure 2.032: Difference between the weak hump impression with cast skin and the deep post-casting reworking of the belt disc from Molzen (242:84g).
Figure 2.033: Use of organic cotter in making eyelets demonstrated on the belt disc from Appel, Kr. Harburg
Figure 2.034: Use of organic cotter in making eyelets demonstrated on the belt disc from Appel, Kr. Harburg
Figure 2.035: Use of organic cotter in making eyelets demonstrated on the belt disc from Molzen
Figure 2.036: Use of a rod-like implement in making eyelets demonstrated on the belt discs from Vorder-Bollhagen in Mecklenburg (ALM3140) and Sludstrup, Jutland (NM B299a).
Figure 2.037: Residues of ceramic core material in the spike´s interior of discs NM 10935a and NM 10938a from the Svenstrup hoard.
Figure 2.038: Residues of ceramic core material in the spike´s interior of the NM 10938b and NM 10938c from the Svenstrup hoard.
Figure 2.039: Characteristic traces for the use of ceramic cores in making eyelets shown on the tutuli from the Vendsyssel hoard.
Figure 2.040: An example of an Early Bronze Age triangular dagger from Wismar with cast-on handle
Figure 2.041: The belt plate from Grabow in Mecklenburg was made using the cast-on technique
Figure 2.042: Cast-on technique shown on the belt plate from Grabow in Mecklenburg (ALM LIH 16).
Figure 2.043: Cast-on technique shown on the belt plate (VM 1680KD) from the Vognserup hoard.
Figure 2.044: Cast-on technique shown on the largest belt plate (VM 1680KC) from the Vognserup hoard.
Figure 2.045: Cast-on technique shown on the largest belt plate (NM 10931) from the Svenstrup hoard.
Figure 2.046: Cast-on technique shown on the belt plate from Langstrup (NM B2307).
Figure 2.047: Cast-on technique shown on the belt plate from Gollern (LMN 4753).
Figure 2.048: Cast-on technique shown on the belt plate from Rye (NM B7619).
Figure 2.049: Cast-on technique shown on the belt plate from Gerdrup (NM B11459-2).
Figure 2.050: Cast-on technique shown on the smaller belt plate from the Frankerup hoard (NM CMXII).
Figure 2.051: Section through the Langstrup belt plate
Figure 2.052: Characteristic surface structures for the cast in an open mould shown on the spike-discs from Raven in Lower Saxony.
Figure 2.053: Wheel-headed pins cast in an open mould: The pin from Oldendorf, Luhe (ML 1009), Rehlingen (LMN 5032) and Westerweyhe (LMN 12018).
Figure 2.054: Stone mould of a wheel-headed pin found in the Bronze Age settlement Oss Horzak in the Netherlands
Figure 2.055: Two-part clay moulds are often destroyed post-casting
Figure 2.056: Wheel-headed pins are cast in moulds with two negative halves: the pin from Edendorf, Ülzen
Figure 2.057: Signs of intensive reworking in the metal lattice of the wheel-headed pin from Rehlingen (LMN 5032).
Figure 2.058: Comparison of casting techniques used in the Bronze Age in northern Europe and within the Atlantic Bronze Age
Figure 2.059: The order in which the decoration is applied, seen through the overlap in the decoration of the neck collar from Rye (NM B7612).
Figure 2.060: Distribution map of the Hollenstedt-type neck collars in central Lower Saxony
Figure 2.061: Operational sequence of Hollenstedt-type neck collars. This sequence is the result of the detailed investigation of seven collars of this type, as well as the metallographic investigation of samples of three collars.
Figure 2.062: Examples from the examined material supporting the single steps within the operational sequence of the Hollenstedt-type collars 2.062.
Figure 2.063: Operational sequence of Mecklenburg-type neck collars. This sequence is the result of the detailed investigation of over twenty collars of this type.
Figure 2.064: Examples from the examined material supporting the single steps within the operational sequence of the Mecklenburg-type collars 2.064.
Figure 2.065: Auxiliary lines and other kinds of markings on the tutuli from Kolbedal, Vejle
Figure 2.066: Auxiliary lines and other kinds of markings on the pin from Heitbrack, Lower Saxony
Figure 2.067: Auxiliary lines and other kinds of markings on the neck collars from Vellinge, Fyn
Figure 2.068: Auxiliary lines and other kinds of markings on the neck collars from Toppenstedt, Lower Saxony
Figure 2.069: Measurement errors in the construction of the decorative pattern on the small belt discs from Apel
Figure 2.070: Construction of a triangle-decorated disc explained on the small disc from Appel, Lower Saxony
Figure 2.071: Measurement errors in the construction of the decorative pattern on the belt discs from Vellinge, Fyn
Figure 2.072: Measurement errors in the construction of the decorative pattern on the belt discs
Figure 2.073: Decoration on the belt disc from Glæsborg, Jutland
Figure 2.074: Belt discs from Vellinge, Fyn (NM B2657) and Rehlingen, Lower Saxony (LMN 4755) demonstrate the different transitions or connections within the single decorative ribbons.
Figure 2.075: Belt discs from Grabow, Mecklenburg (ALM LIH16) and Frankerup, Zealand (NM CMXIII) demonstrate the different transitions or connections within the single decorative ribbons.
Figure 2.076: Belt plates from Gjedsted (NM B13260) and Svenstrup (NM 10932) on Zealand demonstrate the different transitions or connections within the single decorative ribbons.
Figure 2.077: Diagrams show the relation between the artefact, the occurrence of measurement errors and line interruptions in the decoration: A) line approach visible and B) interruptions in ribbon visible.
Figure 2.078: Decorative ribbon of the neck collar from Estrup, Sorø (NM B11969).
Figure 2.079: Waves in the decorative ribbons of the belt plate from Langstrup (top, NM B2307) and the neck collar from Rye (bottom, B7613).
Figure 2.080: Rib-notches of the collar B2659 found on Zealand
Figure 2.081: Weitgendorf-type pin from Weisin, Mecklenburg
Figure 2.082: By joining two half spirals
Figure 2.083: Identical spirals of the belt plate from Langstrup
Figure 2.084: Artefacts 1-7, where the use of spiral-stamps could be proved using successive identical, projectable spirals.
Figure 2.085: Artefacts 8-14, where the use of spiral-stamps could be proved using successive identical, projectable spirals.
Figure 2.086: Artefacts 15-21, where the use of spiral-stamps could be proved using successive identical, projectable spirals.
Figure 2.087: Hand-drawn spirals on the Glæsborg belt disc (B9534).
Figure 2.088: The chart visualises the amount of stamped spirals within the material culture of the Nordic Bronze Age.
Figure 2.089: The reconstruction of the crafting technique used to apply the humps with multiple light bulges.
Figure 2.090: Light reflections on the humps of the disc-head pin from Sparow (ALM LII Z1g,1 ) and Heinrichswalde (ALM7236b) in Mecklenburg support the assumption that they were inserted with several punch blows.
Figure 2.091: The belt disc from Vendsyssel, Zealand (NM B4753-1) and the neck collar from Lüneburg, Lower Saxony (ML 1135) show distinct characteristics for humps inserted with several punch blows.
Figure 2.092: The humps of the hanging disc from Molzen, Lower Saxony (ML 242:84h) and the small disc from Vognserup, Zealand (VM 1680KL) are made in two steps: a weak impression placed in the wax model, and post-casting the impression is processed using
Figure 2.093: The humps of the disc-head pin from Lüneburg (ML 1133) were made in two steps: a weak impression was placed in the wax model followed by post-casting the impression using bronze tools.
Figure 2.094: The disc-head pin from Ehlbeck (collection Becker) was probably made via the cast-on technique.
Figure 2.095: The ‘spreading’-technique demonstrated on the Weitgendorf-type pin from Weisin (ALM 2196a).
Figure 2.096: Characteristic features of the ‘spreading’-technique documented on the disc from Dabel(ALM Br.239).
Figure 2.097: Metal bar used as eyelets on the tutuli from Vognserup (VM 1680 AH and P) is made of a folded sheet metal.
Figure 2.098: Metal bar used as eyelets on the tutuli from Præstergård (B15848) and Annebjerg Skov (B 1000) on Zealand is made of a folded sheet metal.
Figure 2.099: Mistakes in the decoration of the belt disc from Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein (KS20284a) and Vellinge, Fyn (NM 25789) were partly reworked.
Figure 2.100: Offsets and breaks recognisable in the outer turns of the spirals of the collar from Weitgendorf (MM II8269 and 8302) are the result of a careless reparation.
Figure 2.101: The reconstruction of the crafting technique used to make rib-waves.
Figure 2.102: Rib-waves documented on the collars from Lubmin (ALM 94/3/1) and Thürkow (ALM 2003/1201).
Figure 2.103: Rib-waves documented on the collars from Vognserup (VM 1680KE) and Præstergårdsmark (NM B15847) on Zealand.
Figure 2.104: Rib-waves documented on the collars from Rye (NM B7612) and Bagsværd (NM B11391) on Zealand.
Figure 2.105: Rib-waves documented on the collar (B4750-2) and belt plate (B4753-890) from Vendsyssel on Zealand.
Figure 2.106: A casting defect caused deformation of the end rolls post cold-working (hammering).
Figure 2.107: The spiral of the belt plate VM1680 KD projected on the spiral from belt plate VM1680KC shows a high correlation.
Figure 2.108: The spiral of the disc-head pin from Lüneburg (LMN 12041) projected on the spiral from the belt disc from Hohenbünstorf (LMN 24976) shows a high correlation.
Figure 2.109: Antler-like notches documented on the artefacts from the Svenstrup hoard and on the neck collar from the Vendsyssel hoard on Zealand.
Figure 2.110: Example of spiral-decorated artefacts, where a specific U-shaped tool was used to create the spiral centre.
Figure 2.111: The shoe-shaped impression seen on these discs from Glæsborg was made by a unique tool.
Figure 2.113: Dotted lines as an indicator for the working direction seen on the disc from Dabel (ALM Br.239) and the neck collar from Sparow (ALM LIIQ, 3) in Mecklenburg.
Figure 2.114: The spiral leg-rings from Poltnitz in Mecklenburg are a good example of the work of a single craftsperson.
Figure 2.115: Comparison of characteristic features on both spiral leg-rings.
Figure 2.116: Spiral leg-rings from Weisin in Mecklenburg are also very similar in their dimensions.
Figure 2.117: Different kinds of inclusions documented in the SEM
Figure 2.118: By etch pits-induced microrelief
Figure 2.119: Three common types of lattice structure that metals belong to
Figure 2.120: Relations between single-phase structures in metals
Figure 2.121: Copper-tin phase diagram is the simplified form after Scott
Figure 2.122: Microstructure of corroded metals
Figure 2.123: Cuprite highlights the dendritic structure of the neck collar from Lüneburg (LMN 14147) and the stud-bracelet from Luttmissen (LMN 14161).
Figure 2.124: On a specimen sample of the neck collar from Raven, Harburg (LMN 4932), dating to NBA II, the change in the alloy composition towards the corrosion layer can be demonstrated. With the onset of corrosion the copper content decreases significa
Figure 2.125: SEM analysis of the specimen sample from the end plate of the neck collar from Luttmissen, Uelzen (LMN 14161). The table lists the measured values of the individual measurements 1-4.
Figure 2.126: Artefacts with a pure dendritic cast structure
Figure 2.127: Artefacts showing a cast structure with slight changes in the microstructure caused through deformation
Figure 2.128: Traces of plastic deformation in the cast structures concentrated on the rim of the artefact from Lüneburg (LMN 14147).
Figure 2.129: A superficial shrink-hole is covered with material on the stud-bracelet (LMN 14148) found near Lüneburg.
Figure 2.130: Spatially limited traces of intensive cold-working
Figure 2.131: Changes in the microstructure within the small sample from the Becklingen collar (LMN 13135a) suggest a selective annealing and hammering.
Figure 2.132: Changes in the microstructure on the examined artefacts: the cast structure is visible in the centre and the deformed structure in the hem (the straight, object-crossing lines within some of the pictures are the result of an insufficient pol
Figure 2.133: Changes in the microstructure on the examined artefacts: the cast structure is commonly in the ribbed section and the deformed structure at the ends (the straight, object-crossing lines within some of the pictures are the result of an insuff
Figure 2.134: Artefacts showing a clear cold-working structure with several annealing phases
Figure 2.135: Corrosion makes the fine-grained structure visible from the pin of Rehlingen (LMN 5032) and the bracelet of Amelinghausen (LMN 13176).
Figure 2.136: The scheme illustrates how shrink-holes emerge during the cooling process of the liquid melt
Figure 2.137: Percentages of neck collars in NBA II and III, where an indication for the casting direction could be obtained.
Figure 2.138: Accumulation of casting defects on neck collars, which are indicative of the casting direction.
Figure 2.139: The neck collar from Bringe (B3486) shows several changes in the surface structure on the reverse side, which indicate the location of several sprues.
Figure 2.140: Modelled ribs from the Glæsborg neck collar (NM B9531).
Figure 2.141: Reconstructed operational sequence for small belt discs.
Figure 2.142: The decoration of the belt disc from Vendsyssel (B4753-1) on Zealand was applied partly in the wax model and partly post-casting.
Figure 2.143: Belt plate from Wardböhmen (1161:76) in central Lower Saxony with hammer marks and indications for hammering on the reverse side of the plate.
Figure 2.144: Characteristic surface structures for hammered edge-accompanying grooves detected on the belt plates from Skagen (NM MCDDDXXI) and Vellinge (NM 25788).
Figure 2.145: Reconstructed operational sequence for belt plates.
Figure 2.146: Percentage of stamped spirals compared to examined artefacts of each object group.
Figure 2.147: Reconstructed operational sequence for ribbed tutuli.
Figure 2.148: Traces of intensive reworking on the ribbed section of the tutulus from Vendsyssel (B4754_873).
Figure 2.149: Rod-like metal bar is incorporated into the wax model of tutulus body and additionally secured as demonstrated on the artefacts from Vendsyssel (B4754-878) and Kolbedal (FHM 5106).
Figure 2.150: Reconstructed operational sequence for tutuli with dome-shaped spike.
Figure 2.151: On several tutuli (dome-shaped-spike) the sprue should be expected on the top, as on the tutuli from Rødovre (B13365) and Svenstrup (B10942a).
Figure 2.152: Reconstructed operational sequence for wheel-headed pins.
Figure 2.153: Reconstructed operational sequence for flat disc-headed pins.
Figure 2.154: The pin from Heinrichswalde
Figure 2.155: Reconstructed operational sequence for disc-headed pins with horizontal disc-head.
Figure 3.001: The scheme visualises single components of the craftsman’s habitus.
Figure 3.002: Repairs require imagination, skill and a great amount of knowledge. The plate shows two examples of the repair of broken spikes on belt plates. A) Belt plate from Frankerup, Sorø Amt (NM CMXIII) was repaired with the help of staples. B) Belt
Figure 3.003: The examples show different possibilities for repairing collars. Collars from Ballemose, Viborg Amt (FHM 5171); Bustrup; Viborg Amt (NM B11250); unknown site probably in north Germany (NM B4745), and Sulsted, Ålborg Amt (FHM 2826) were rep
Figure 3.004: The process of emulation
Figure 3.005: It is very likely that neck ring sets as well as lunula-shaped artefacts set the style for the shape of the first ribbed neck collars in NBAIB.
Figure 3.006: Two different artefact types were made using different techniques, although they are very alike in their formal appearance.
Figure 3.007: Collars found in Wildberg (MM II 4381) and Werder (MM II 6284) were crafted by different techniques mirroring different technological traditions.
Figure 3.008: This scheme visualises the influences to which the single technical choices are subject.
Figure 3.009: Reduced production sequence of Mecklenburg-type neck collars displays the sorts of choices made by the craftsperson within the creation of a singular object
Figure 3.010: Cognitive development of children
Figure 3.011: Distinction between the characteristics of unskilled and skilled work performed under stress can be difficult. The collar from Heitbrack (LMN 148:81) shows the parts of the decoration made by professionals and the part made by unskilled peop
Figure 3.012: Characteristic traces of novice work on a neck collar from Mecklenburg (ALM 94-1032/4).
Figure 3.013: Characteristic traces of novice work on the belt plate from Norre Snede (AM 5337).
Figure 3.014: Errors documented on the belt plate from Vognserup (VM 1680KC) on Zealand can be interpreted as a sign of haste and the lack of concentration by a skilled craftsman.
Figure 3.015: Errors documented on a fibula (NM B2885) found on Bornholm can be interpreted as a sign of haste and the lack of concentration by a skilled craftsman.
Figure 3.016: Belt disc (NM B299a) and neck collar (NM B298) from Sludstrup show very similar connection points of the spiral and the connective line, as well as comparable lines.
Figure 3.017: Within the decoration of the belt disc
Figure 3.018: Distribution of bronze ornaments decorated with arrow-ribbon in Mecklenburg. Most popular patterns were stacked arches (yellow), cross-hatched (green) and ladder-like notched (red) ribbon, and stacked arrow ribbon (blue).
Figure 3.019: Circulation of metal
Figure 3.020: Production process diagram for copper and iron, as well as for fired clay
Figure 3.021: Visualisation of the second information level in the operational sequence of the Hollenstedt- and Mecklenburg-type neck collars. Possible tools used to execute single steps are named above in the sequence.
Figure 3.022: Three main groups of sequence variation within the Mecklenburg-type neck collars.
Figure 3.023: Resulting from the deviation within the operational sequence, three stylistic groups could be distinguished with a clear regional specific behaviour (see colour codes). Black dots indicate neck collars of a different, not spiral decorated ty
Figure 3.024: Combination statistics of bronze ornaments in Mecklenburg, as variables. Different technical characteristics were chosen. Three style groups can be well recognized in this general presentation. The other artefacts, placed outside the groupin
Figure 3.025: Combination statistics of bronze ornaments in Mecklenburg, as variables. Different decorative elements are chosen. Three style groups are visible within this pattern and it is very likely that a finer distinction is possible.
Figure 3.026: Within the known operational sequence of Hollenstedt- and Mecklenburg-type neck collars potential areas are highlighted in which the knowledge of other craft directions is required (red arrows), and any form of preliminary work or division o
Figure 3.027: Visualisation of different levels of information in an operational sequence.
Figure 4.001: Correspondence analysis of the neck collars in regard to their proportions and the measured weight. The achieved groups support the assumption of stylistic differences between the regions.
Figure 4.002: Correspondence analysis of the belt plates in regard to their proportions and the measured weight. In a similar manner as the neck collars, the belt plates also support the assumption of stylistic differences between the regions.
Figure 4.003: Single decorative elements detected on investigated material of NBAII and III.
Figure 4.004: Separation of the Nordic Bronze Age into three main regions, with deviations in the use of the basic crafting techniques, such as casting and cold-working.
Figure 4.005: Around 20% of all belt plates were made using the cast-on technique to attach the spike to the disc.
Figure 4.006: The distinctive geographical distribution areas of technical peculiarities (technical traditions) correspond roughly to the stylistic groups.
Figure 4.007: When projecting technical similarities onto the groups identified through classification of objects, burial rites and architecture, a high degree of similarity can be traced.
Figure 4.008: Comparison of the regional groupings, the regions with a similar technical tradition and the detected workshops.
Figure 4.009: Modern traces of restauration influence the surface structure of the neck collar from Weisin (ALM 2199).
Figure 4.010: The graph shows the measured skill-units from high skill (1111) to very low skill (3232) with regard to the time period. The majority display all the characteristics of artefacts made by people familiar with and trained in metalcrafts.
Figure 4.011: The correspondence analysis highlights the slight chronological tendency in the highly-skilled crafted artefacts. The majority of artefacts, however, gathers around medium-skilled craft.
Figure 4.012: The correspondence analysis in which the production-unit and the skill-unit are put in relation to the artefacts in time, supports the assumption that high labour input is related to skilled craft.
Figure 4.013: The graph demonstrates that artefacts made with a high labour input (PU over 160) represent only a small portion of the total amount in both periods. In contrast to NBAII, where artefacts with a very low PU are represented in a high number,
Figure 4.014: Spike-discs from Toppenstedt (HH62376a-c) were cast in the same mould as several identical interruptions in the rib-groves and a similar reworking support.
Figure 4.015: Spike-discs from Raven (LMN 14083-84) are of much better quality and reveal also distinctive signs of a cast from the same mould as the edges on the rib slope and the very flat rib at the top.
Figure 4.016: Several parts of the decorative design of the belt discs from Appel (LMN 4769-71) show that behind this decoration the same hand can be inferred.
Figure 4.017: Comparison of line-filled triangles from Appel (LMN 4770) and Molzen (ML 242:84c). Characteristics of both ornamental details are clearly recognisable.
Figure 4.018: The spirals on the decorated disc-head pin from Heitbrack (LMN 137:81) and the belt plate from Eyendorf (H55, small picture projected onto the disc-head pin) are clearly not made with the same stamp. The spirals on the belt plate (H55) are p
Figure 4.019: The allocation of unique tool traces to a specific craftsperson in NBA II (left) and NBA III (right).
Figure 4.020: Triangle decoration of several artefacts was very likely made using the same tool, as seen on the belt disc from Vendsyssel (NM B4753:890) and the neck collar from Pisede (ALM 3191), and on the belt disc (VM1680 AH) and neck collar (1680KF)
Figure 4.021: Triangle decoration of the small belt disc from Vendsyssel (B4753:890) is the same as on the neck collar from (NM 25787) and belt disc (NM 25789) from Vellinge on Fyn.
Figure 4.022: The occasional application of spirals, with the help of spiral-shaped stamps, resulted in groups of artefacts made with the same stamp in NBA II (left) and NBA III (right).
Figure 4.023: The first group of artefacts made with the same stamp consists of probably four pieces. As seen on the artefacts from Svenstrup (NM 10932) and Gerdrup (B11459) the spirals are made with the same stamp.
Figure 4.024: The artefacts from the very rich NBA II hoards, such as the Vognserup hoard (VM 1680 KC and KD) and, as already shown, the Svenstrup (NM 10932) hoard, also count amongst the first group of stamp-decorated artefacts. The spirals are a near pe
Figure 4.025: The neck collars from Bringe (NM B3486) and Svenstrup (NM B10927) on Zealand not only match in the spiral decoration but also in the surrounding decorative ribbon.
Figure 4.026: A second group of artefacts made with the same stamp consists of probably four or five pieces. Here, the similarity between the spirals is very high, as seen on the neck collar (NM B11686) and belt plate (NM B11685) from Lavø on Zealand.
Figure 4.027: Same spirals were detected on the belt plate from Frankerup, Zealand (NM CMXII).
Figure 4.028: Same spirals were detected on the belt plate from Rye, Zealand (NM B7615).
Figure 4.029: A very similar spiral (probably related to the second group) was also detected on the disc-head pin from Heitbrack (LMN 137:81) in central Lower Saxony.
Figure 4.030: Spirals from the disc-head pin from Heitbrack (LMN 137:81), furthermore, match the spirals from the disc-head pin from Lüneburg (LMN 12041), and thus are also related to the belt plate from Hohenbünstorf (LMN 24976).
Figure 4.031: Artefacts made using the same spiral stamp within AW 7 and 8. Each stamp seems to be characteristic for the specific workshop.
Figure 4.032: The use of the same spiral stamp can be detected on several artefacts, and occasionally two artefacts are decorated with the same stamp as the belt plates from Svenstrup (NM 10933 and 10931), or the neck collars from Krasmose (NM B647) on Bo
Figure 4.033: Spirals on the neck collars found in Weitgendorf (Brandenburg) have specific characteristics, such as a distinct fan-structure in the centre, several interruptions, and single superposition at the last turn, as well as their size.
Figure 4.034: Within the NBA II hoard from Svenstrup the technical connections between the artefacts point towards the work of in all five different craftspeople and additionally relationships to other artefacts.
Figure 4.035: Artefacts deposited in the NBA II hoard from Vognserup on Zealand seem to have been made in the same workshop, but not by a single individual. Due to this the hoard is different in its structure compared to the other investigated NBA II hoar
Figure 4.036: The artefacts of the NBA II hoard from Molzen in central Lower Saxony were probably crafted by three people, possibly from the same workshop. In the crafting a master craftsperson was involved, as well as probably a less skilled person, and
Figure 4.037: The NBA II hoard from Appel shows no connection to the hoard (and thus workshop) from Molzen. However, the artefacts from the hoard were probably crafted in one workshop by two different craftspeople.
Figure 4.038: The inventory of the NBA II burial from Rehlingen ‘Büchenberg’ was made by a local craftsman and probably contained an imported belt plate.
Figure 4.039: Wheel-headed pin (LMN 5032) and neck collar (LMN 4931) of the Rehlingen burial were probably crafted by the same person, as the overall appearance and technical features are alike.
Figure 4.040: The belt plate (LMN 4755) of the Rehlingen burial is made by a different craftsperson with a different technical tradition and thus probably foreign.
Figure 4.041: Analytical Workshop (AW)
Figure 4.042: Characteristics of artefacts made within Analytical Workshop (AW) 4, situated south of the Elbe River in the Lüneburg region.
Figure 4.043: Analytical Workshop (AW)
Figure 4.044: Characteristics of the artefacts allocated to Analytical Workshop (AW) 8, situated in north Zealand.
Figure 4.045: Characteristics of the artefacts allocated to Analytical Workshop (AW) 7, probably situated in northeast Zealand.
Figure 4.046: Analytical Workshop (AW)
Figure 4.047: This general scheme shows different aspects of mobility in craftsmanship. The workshop was subject to various influences, such as those of the society, of other workshops and, particularly, of its customers. The goods produced can go direct
Figure 4.048: The similarity in the way the humps were applied between the belt disc from Vendsyssel (NM B4753-1) and the neck collar from Lüneburg (ML 1135) is obvious, especially compared to the various techniques observed.
Figure 4.049: Distribution of Krasmose-type neck collar (after Nørgaard 2011). The collars related due to their crafting traces are highlighted (blue and red). Of interest is the extended distribution of the large collars (red), with several examples on B
Figure 4.050: Spirals on the collar from Sludstrup (B298) and Gjedsted (B13259) on Jutland, were probably made with the same stamp and technique.
Figure 4.051: Technical differences between collar from Vorup (NM B6622) and the collar from Gjedsted (NM B13259) are clearly visible. However they are of the same typological group.
Figure 4.052: Comparison of the characteristics of three possible forms of craft organisation: the so-called communities of practice, family-based workshops, and attached craft.
Figure 4.053: Distribution of artefacts considered to be of extremely good quality. The majority of these artefacts were made in the Analytical Workshops (AW) 7 (green) or 8 (brown).
Figure 4.054: Assumed organisation of detected workshops in NBA II and III is visualised using the symbols from Figure 4.052.
Figure 4.055: Visual representation of the ‘reciprocative mobility pattern’
Figure 4.056: The ‘unequal exchange model’, in which specialised craftspeople are exchanged at a prestige goods level, in addition to regular exchange
Figure 4.057: The ‘equal exchange model’ in which specialised craftspeople are exchanged for each other as a consequence of lack of work
Part 1
Material culture
Chapter 1
The examined material culture
1.0 Introduction: the investigated material culture
Chapter 2
Presentation and interpretation of the examined material culture
1.2.0 Symbol or costume-fitting: magnificent decorated ornaments within the socio-cultural discussion
1.2.1 Neck collars within the Nordic Bronze Age
1.2.2 Belt plates and belt discs in the Nordic Bronze Age
1.2.3 A short presentation of tutuli within the Nordic Bronze Age
1.2.4 Highly decorated bronze pins in northern Germany and Scandinavia during the Early and Middle Bronze Age
Chapter 3
Archaeological residues of metalcraft within the Nordic Bronze Age
1.3.0 Introducing the archaeological evidence of metalcraft
1.3.1 Settlements
1.3.2. Hoards
1.3.3 Burials
1.3.4 The metalworker in the archaeological record
Map 01: Map of the artefacts examined in this book.
Map 02: Distribution of neck collars in NBA II (dots) and III (squares) (after Nørgaard 2011).
Map 03: Distribution of the neck collar-types in central Lower Saxony with examples
Map 04: The NBA 1B neck collars in Northern Europe, displayed as grave-, hoard- and single-finds
Map 05: Distribution of belt plates and belt discs in southern Scandinavia and Germany.
Map 06: Distribution of the early belt discs decorated with hump series’, and triangles composed of lines arranged in a star motif.
Map 07: Distribution of the early belt plates decorated with hump series (see Map 06).
Map 08: Distribution of the belt plates decorated with spiral series’.
Part 2
Archaeological and scientific investigation
Chapter 1
Bronze Age Metalwork of NBA II/III in Northern Europe
2.1.0 Introduction and method of the technical and investigative parts of the study
2.1.1 Differences in Nordic metalwork
Chapter 2
Bronze Age craftsmanship: a research history
2.2.0 Research concerning Bronze Age metalcraft
2.2.1 Research concerning the crafting of ‘Nordic’ ornaments
2.2.2 Drescher’s experiments in the light of modern research
2.2.3 Methods for the preparation of individual decorative elements
Chapter 3
Experimental and ethnological research
2.3.0 Experimental research and its significance for the knowledge of prehistoric metalcraft
2.3.1 Experiments based on ethnographic parallels
2.3.2 Embossing – an ‘exclusion experiment’: NBA III ornaments embossed on a copper sheet
Chapter 4
The difference within metalworking techniques
2.4.0 Traces of crafting and comparing techniques
2.4.1 The methodology
2.4.2 A trace-catalogue for the technical examination of the bronze ornaments
Chapter 5
Casting techniques and casting moulds
2.5.0 Casting techniques used to craft ornaments of the Nordic Bronze Age
2.5.1 Lost-form casting
2.5.2 The cast-on technique (‘Überfangguss’)
2.5.3 Casting in open moulds (‘Herdguss’): the Lüneburg-type wheel-headed pin
2.5.4 Casting in two-part moulds made of ceramic, metal, stone: the wheel-headed pins
2.5.5 Concluding thoughts concerning casting techniques used in the Nordic Bronze Age
Chapter 6
Crafting traces and crafting sequences
2.6.0 The ornament in focus – methods of craft-technical studies
2.6.1 Encrypted in the decoration: operational sequences
2.6.2 Legacies of the Bronze Age smith: mistakes in manufacture as indicators for the ‘craftsperson’
2.6.3 Specialised techniques to create decorative units
2.6.4 Traces of individual and unique techniques
2.6.5 Repair as reaction to mistakes in crafting and their potential for tracing individual behaviour
2.6.6 Tool traces and the use of identical tools
2.6.7 Ornaments in pairs: an indicator for similarity
Chapter 7
Archaeometallurgical investigations
2.7.0 A natural scientific method with immense potential for the investigation of prehistoric crafts
2.7.1 Method and documentation
2.7.2 Microstructures in metals: the basics
2.7.3 Microstructures in metals: revealing the potential for reconstructing operational sequences
2.7.4 Corrosion
2.7.5 Cast and hammered: the microstructures of NBA II and III ornaments
Chapter 8
It starts with the model – results of the craft-technical investigation
2.8.0 Chronological and spatial distribution pattern
2.8.1. Crafting neck collars
2.8.2 Crafting belt plates and belt discs
2.8.3 Crafting tutuli (belt humps)
2.8.4 Crafting Nordic Bronze Age pins (wheel- and disc-headed pins)
Map 09: Distribution of artefacts made via cast-on technique during NBAII and III.
Map 10: Stone moulds of the Bronze Age in Northern Europe and Scandinavia
Map 11: Distribution of the known casting techniques in the Nordic Bronze Age.
Map 12: Distribution of the artefacts with individual tool-traces.
Map 13: Technical preferences in applying the decoration in NBA II.
Map 14: Technical preferences in applying the decoration in NBA III.
Map 15: Distribution of neck collars cast from the middle section (top-left), from the end part (top-right), from the side parts (bottom-left) and from multiple places (bottom-right).
Map 16: Different cross-sections of the rib-valleys in NBAII and III.
Map 17: Triangular rib-valleys compared to horizontal grooves in the rib-valleys – an indication for the use of a comb-like tool.
Map 18: Distribution of the various techniques to make an eyelet in NBAII (left) and NBA III (right).
Map 19: Distribution of the belt discs in regard to their crafting technique.
Map 20: Distribution of NBA II belt discs with the spiral decoration applied using stamps.
Map 21: Distribution of belt discs and plates made with help of the cast-on technique. The assumable direction of the second casting process is marked with the arrows.
Map 22: Distribution of tutuli with cast-on metal eyelet in NBA II (left) and NBA III (right).
Part 3
Metalcraft in a theoretical light
Chapter 1
Theoretical approaches to craft in prehistoric times: a research history
3.1.0 Craft theory, some introductory thoughts
3.1.1 Theoretical approaches to the study of technology
3.1.2 Individual agency in technology
3.1.3 Apprenticeship in archaeology
3.1.4 Style and technology
Chapter 2
The craftsperson’s habitus
3.2.0 The explanation of ‘inexplicable action’
3.2.1 Body of knowledge and ‘tacit knowledge’
3.2.2 Learned and adopted technical behaviour
3.2.3 The influence of social environment on craft and crafting
Chapter 3
Technological choices
3.3.0 Choices within operational sequences
3.3.1 Free technical choices – a characteristic for art?
Chapter 4
Apprenticeship and Bronze Age craft
3.4.0 Craft training and apprenticeship – a multidisciplinary research field
3.4.1 Traces of apprenticeship within the material of the Nordic Bronze Age
3.4.2 Innovative individuals – the creation of style
Chapter 5
A new approach to the study of craft in prehistoric times
3.5.0 Operational sequences: a basic tool and even more
3.5.1 Asking ‘how’, ‘where’ and ‘whom’ – specific questions and information on several levels
3.5.2 Asking about technological traditions and workshop areas: the second information level
3.5.3 Asking for innovative actions and individual behaviour: the third information level
3.5.4 Asking for the organisation of craft: the fourth information level
Map 23: Different kinds of reparation detected on artefacts during NBA II and III.
Map 24: Distribution of spiral decorated artefacts with a special labeling of the pieces which are made in stamp-technique.
Map 25: Artefacts showing signs of novice work, signs of an interaction between novice and skilled craftsmen and signs of professional mistakes.
Map 26: Artefacts showing interaction between skilled craftsmen and novices on Zealand. Distribution allows first interpretations to the workshop organisation on Zealand as the northeast part shows neither novice work nor mistakes by professional craftspe
Map 27: Distribution of artefacts with rib-waves which are caused by spreading of surplus material while crafting the collar.
Map 28: The difference between artefacts in Mecklenburg which were processed post-casting and those that were cast as fully decorated models in regard to the specific periods.
Part 4
Metalwork within the Nordic Bronze Age: Conclusion and Discussion
Chapter 1
Pattern of regional behaviour
4.1.0 Tracing regional behaviour in the metalwork of the Nordic Bronze Age
4.1.1 Decorative-element distribution
4.1.2 Regionally restricted technical behaviour
4.1.3 Decorative and technical similarities – regional technological behaviour or workshop circles?
Chapter 2
Traces of individual behaviour
4.2.0 An approach to measure skill and productivity
4.2.1 The Bronze Age smith: traces of individuality
Chapter 3
Traces of interaction groups of craftspeople – traces of the analytical workshop
4.3.0 A workshop’s repertoire? An examination of hoard assemblages
4.3.1 Workshops, craftspeople and their contacts
Chapter 4
The organisation of craft in the Nordic Bronze Age
4.4.0 About imports, imitation, mobility, and the organisation of craft
4.4.1 Metalcraft: more complex than previously thought?
4.4.2 The question of mobility: itinerant craftspeople in a new light
Bibliography
Catalogue
Introduction to the Catalogue
Alphabetical Catalogue
Table 1: Morphological data
Table 2: Skill and production units
Table 3: Metal analysis
Map 29: The variety of decorative elements on Zealand (17 of 19 basic elements) is impressive. Some elements occur predominately on the Danish Island as triangles composed of lines, hatched bands, routes and axe-shaped hour-glass notches.
Map 30: Specific decorative elements could not be found on artefacts of a specific region (such as Zealand or central Lower Saxony), although they were common in the Nordic Bronze Age.
Map 31: Some decorative elements are used in different variations in the different regions.
Map 32: Skill unit highlights the variation in the skill between different metalworkers. Distribution of artefacts crafted by highly skilled craftspeople shows a concentration in the already known metalworking centres on Northeast Zealand, in the eastern
Map 33: The map shows that highly skilled craftspeople crafted all ranges of artefacts and occasionally regional specific patterns are visible.
Map 34: While mapping artefacts produced with a high labour input in regard to the skill detected it is obvious, that all skill levels are represented and only on Zealand a direct relation between both factors is visible.
Map 35: The map shows the NBA II artefacts with traces of individual behaviour in crafting divided into tool traces, identical innovative techniques, traces of similar habits, and artefacts from the same mould, and their connections.
Map 36: NBA III artefacts with traces of individual behaviour in crafting are divided into tool traces, identical innovative techniques, traces of similar habits, and artefacts from the same mould, and their connections.
Map 37: The analytical workshops of NBA II, the artefacts that could be assigned to each AW are displayed in similar colours.
Map 38: Analytical workshops of NBA III, the artefacts that could be assigned to each AW are displayed in similar colours. Analytical workshops that very likely still existed in NBA II are shown as grey circles.
Map 39: Distribution of belt plates made using the cast-on technique. The direction in which the spike is cast-on is related to the detected analytical workshops on Zealand.
Map 40: The folding of sheet metal with the aim to use the wires as eyelets in tutuli can be traced to a single analytical workshops on Zealand.
Map 41: Distribution of artefacts with signs of unskilled work, of a combination of professional work and novice works, and artefacts with signs of haste, in regard to the analytical workshops defined on Zealand
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