Blue Economy: An Ocean Science Perspective

Foreword
Preface
Introduction
Contents
Acronyms
1 Blue Economy and Ocean Science: Introduction
1.1 Context
1.2 Blue Economy
1.2.1 Definition
1.2.2 Blue Economy Components and Industries
1.2.3 Blue Economy and General Limitations
1.2.4 Measuring Performance of Blue Economy
1.2.5 Science and Technology for Sustainable Blue Economy
1.3 Ocean Services and Products, Threats from Human Activities
1.3.1 Services Provided by the Ocean
1.3.2 Products from the Ocean
1.3.3 Human Impacts on the Ocean
1.4 The Role of Science in Blue Economies
1.5 Goals of the Book
References
2 Coral Reefs and Blue Economy
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structure, Taxonomy
2.2.1 Classification of Coral Reefs
2.2.2 Taxonomy of Reef Building Corals
2.3 Global Distribution and Status
2.4 Ecosystem Services
2.4.1 Biodiversity
2.4.2 Coastal Protection
2.4.3 Blue Carbon
2.5 Blue Economic Sectors
2.5.1 Tourism
2.5.2 Fisheries
2.5.3 Marine Biotechnology
2.6 Threats and Their Impacts
2.6.1 Coral Bleaching
2.6.2 Coral Diseases
2.6.3 Ocean Acidification
2.7 Importance of Global Observing Systems for Coral Reefs
2.7.1 The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN)
2.8 Science and Technology Measures
2.8.1 Research on Coral Symbiosis and Coral Bleaching
2.8.2 Coral Reef Microbiology
2.8.3 Modelling and Monitoring for Threat Alert Systems
2.8.4 Coral Ecosystem Restoration and Conservation Tools
2.9 Conclusions
References
3 Mangroves and Seagrasses
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Role in the Blue Economy
3.2.1 Blue Carbon
3.2.2 Fisheries (See Also Chap. 4)
3.2.3 Tourism (See Also Chap. 6)
3.2.4 Blue Biotechnology
3.3 Threats
3.3.1 Mangroves
3.3.2 Seagrasses
3.4 Outlook and Potential Challenges
3.4.1 Mapping
3.4.2 Conservation
3.4.3 Awareness (Perceptions) and Citizen Science
3.4.4 Marine Protected Area and Legislation
3.4.5 Valuation
3.5 Summary
References
4 Coastal Fisheries
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fishing Over Time
4.3 World Fisheries
4.3.1 Coastal Fisheries Capture Evolution by Country Economic Class
4.3.2 Global Fishing Fleets and Employment
4.3.3 Fish Utilization and Consumption
4.3.4 Fisheries Subsidies
4.3.5 The Modern Cycle of Fisheries Development (An Example)
4.4 Fishery Science and Technology
4.4.1 The Effects of Fishing
4.4.2 Bycatch and Discards
4.4.3 Ghost Fishing and Marine Litter
4.4.4 Seafood Fraud
4.5 Fisheries Management
4.5.1 Importance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
4.5.2 Climate Change and Fisheries (See also Chap. 12)
4.5.3 The Importance of Fisheries Associations and International Cooperation
4.6 Fisheries and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
4.6.1 Fisheries Related Targets of SDG 14—Life Below Water
4.7 Fisheries and the Governance of the Blue Economy
References
5 Effects of Groundwater Extraction and River Regulation on Coastal Freshwater Resources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Coastal Freshwater Resources
5.2.1 Climate Control of Groundwater Resources
5.2.2 Coastal Groundwater Resources in China
5.3 Problems Encountered and the Science and Technology for Their Monitoring and Mitigation
5.3.1 Environmental Issues Relating to Groundwater Extraction
5.3.2 Saltwater Intrusion, Engineering Measures and Downstream Impacts
5.3.3 Human Impacts on Water Resources in the Coastal Zone
5.3.4 Human Regulation Impacts on River-Estuary-Aquifer Biogeochemistry
5.3.5 Submarine Groundwater Discharge Fuels HABs
5.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
6 Marine Tourism and the Blue Economy: Perspectives from the Mascarene and Pacific Islands
6.1 Introduction—Tourism and the Blue Economy
6.2 Mauritius
6.2.1 Tourism Revenue
6.2.2 Regulatory Frameworks
6.2.3 Tourism Impacts and Mitigation
6.3 Pacific Islands Countries and Territories
6.3.1 Tourism Revenue
6.3.2 Economic Value of Marine Tourism in PICTs
6.3.3 Regulatory Frameworks
6.3.4 Tourism Impacts and Mitigation
6.4 Discussion
References
7 Energy Transition to the Blue Economy: The Role of Science and Technology
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Global O&G Distribution, Supply and Demand
7.3 Net-Zero Carbon and Energy Options
7.3.1 Ocean Energy
7.3.2 Offshore Wind Energy
7.3.3 Floating Solar Photovoltaic Energy
7.4 Role of O&G in a Transition Economy
7.5 Challenges and Environmental Risks of Offshore O&G Production
7.6 S&T for Sustainable O&G Offshore Production
7.6.1 Role of EOR and CCUS
7.6.2 Case Studies: Brazil and Norway
7.7 Lessons Learned
7.8 Final Remarks
References
8 Coastal and Nearshore Minerals: Blue Economy Potential and Prospects
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Placer Minerals
8.2.1 Types of Placer Minerals
8.2.2 Global Distribution of Placer Deposits
8.3 Offshore Diamond Mining
8.4 Offshore Phosphorite Mining
8.4.1 Phosphorus and the Modern Food System
8.4.2 Phosphate Rock Formation and Distribution
8.4.3 Future of Land-Based Phosphate Mining
8.4.4 Offshore Mining of Phosphorus—The Needs, Challenges, and Opportunities
8.4.5 Marine Phosphate Mining and Environmental Impacts
8.5 Legal Frameworks Governing Mining
8.6 Environmental and Social Impact of Marine Mining
8.7 Regional and National Approaches
8.8 Challenges and Science and Technology Response Options
8.8.1 Exploration for Minerals
8.8.2 Mitigation of Mining Impacts
8.9 Summary
References
9 Coastal Pollution
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Coastal Eutrophication
9.2.1 Global Patterns and Trends
9.2.2 Patterns in Developing Countries
9.2.3 Impacts of Eutrophication
9.3 Heavy Metal Pollution
9.3.1 Global Patterns
9.3.2 Patterns in Developing Countries
9.3.3 Impacts of Heavy Metals on Coastal Ecosystems
9.4 Oil Spills
9.4.1 Global Patterns
9.4.2 Pattern in Developing Countries
9.4.3 Impacts of Oil Spills
9.5 Plastics Pollution
9.5.1 Global Patterns
9.5.2 Patterns in Developing Countries
9.5.3 Impacts of Plastics Pollution
9.6 Radionuclide Pollution
9.6.1 Global Patterns
9.6.2 Patterns in Developing Countries
9.6.3 Impacts of Radionuclide Pollution
9.7 Mitigations Against Coastal Pollution
9.8 Cases of Coastal Pollution in Developing Countries
9.8.1 The Pearl River Delta in China
9.8.2 The iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area in South Africa
9.8.3 India
9.8.4 Thailand
9.9 Knowledge and Capacity-Building Gaps
9.10 Implications for Blue Economy
References
10 Harmful Algae
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Impacts of HABs on the Blue Economy: Case Studies
10.2.1 Chilean Fjords
10.2.2 Ostreopsis spp. in the Mediterranean Sea
10.2.3 Northeast Atlantic Ocean
10.2.4 Ciguatera in the Caribbean and French Polynesia
10.2.5 PSP Outbreaks and Fish Kills in the Philippines
10.3 Role of Science and Technology in Facing HAB-Related Challenges
10.3.1 Increasing Diversity of HAB Species
10.3.2 Toxin Detection
10.3.3 Observing Systems
10.4 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
References
11 Ocean Acidification and Blue Economies
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Causes of Ocean Acidification
11.2.1 Ocean Acidification in the Geological Record
11.2.2 Ocean Acidification Since the Industrial Revolution: Observations and Predictions
11.3 Impact of Ocean Acidification on Ocean Ecosystems and Their Products and Services
11.4 Relevance to Blue Economic Sectors
11.4.1 Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Blue Economies
11.5 Outreach and Networks
11.6 Science to Address Ocean Acidification Impacts on Blue Economy Resources
11.6.1 Observations
11.6.2 Research
References
12 Climate Change and Coastal Systems
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Climate Change Related Stresses in the Coastal Zone
12.2.1 Ocean Warming
12.2.2 Global Mean Sea Level Rise
12.2.3 Storms, Storm Surges and Waves
12.2.4 Heavy Precipitation Events and Flooding
12.2.5 Acidification
12.2.6 Deoxygenation
12.3 Impact of Climate Change
12.3.1 Geophysical Impacts
12.3.2 Ecosystem Impacts
12.4 Risks and Impacts on Coastal Resources and Blue Economy
12.4.1 Risks and Impacts of Climate Change on Coastal Resources
12.4.2 Risks and Impacts of Climate Change on Coastal Economies
12.5 Management and Mitigation
12.5.1 Coastal Observation: Enabling Resilient and Sustainable Blue Economies
12.5.2 Effective Early Warning Systems
12.5.3 Flood Management
12.5.4 Ecosystem-Based Solution
12.5.5 Marine Spatial Planning
12.5.6 Hard Engineering Solutions
12.6 Summary and Outlook
References
13 Constructing a Blue Economy Architecture for Small Islands
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Ocean Potential and Small Islands
13.2.1 Fisheries (See Also Chap. 4)
13.2.2 Blue Carbon (See Also Chap. 3)
13.2.3 Mineral Resources (See Also Chap. 8)
13.2.4 Energy (See Also Chap. 7)
13.2.5 Tourism (See Also Chap. 6)
13.2.6 Maritime Transport
13.2.7 Biotechnology (See Also Chap. 3)
13.3 Threats to Small Islands
13.3.1 Climate Change Impacts (See Also Chap. 12)
13.3.2 Anthropogenic Activities
13.4 An STI Roadmap to Establish the Blue Economy
13.4.1 Planning and Prioritization
13.4.2 Resources and Services
13.4.3 Governance
References
14 The Role of Sustained Ocean Observations to the Society and Blue Economy
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Evolution of Ocean Observing Systems
14.3 Existing In-Situ Observing Networks
14.3.1 Data Buoy Cooperation Panel (DBCP)
14.3.2 Argo Program
14.3.3 Ship Observations Team (SOT)
14.3.4 OceanSITES
14.3.5 The OceanGliders Program
14.3.6 Global Ocean Ship-Based Hydrographic Investigations Program (GO-SHIP)
14.3.7 Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS)
14.3.8 HF Radar Network
14.3.9 Animal Borne Ocean Sensors (ANIBOS)
14.4 Satellite Observations
14.5 Emerging Ocean Observation Methods
14.5.1 Marine Telecommunication Cables
14.5.2 Emerging Autonomous Ocean Observing Systems
14.5.3 Leveraging Private Sector Data Collection Initiatives
14.6 Case Studies: Role of Sustained Ocean Observations in Society
14.6.1 Government Buy-In of the Importance of Ocean Observations Ensures Their Sustainability—A Case Study from South Africa
14.6.2 Enhancing Projects by Ensuring Community Understanding—Case Studies from the South Pacific
14.6.3 Global Monitoring in Ghana
14.6.4 Public–Private Partnership Leads to Improved Knowledge of the Ocean in Brazil
14.6.5 Societal Benefits of the Ocean Observation Systems—A Case Study from the Indian Ocean
14.6.6 The Importance of International and National Programs Working Together for Sustainability—Case Studies from the Mozambique Channel
14.7 Relevance and Benefits—The Importance of Observing the Ocean
14.7.1 Climate Prediction, Ocean Analysis and Forecasting
14.7.2 Marine Meteorological Services
14.7.3 Safety, Shipping and Recreation
14.7.4 Hazard Warnings
14.7.5 Marine Ecosystem Services
14.8 Challenges and Lessons Learned
14.8.1 Governance and Coordination of National Observing Systems
14.8.2 Blue Economy: Role of Weather, Climate and Coastal Hazards
14.8.3 Exclusive Economic Zones
14.8.4 Communicating the Value of the Observing System
14.8.5 Capacity Development and Retention
14.8.6 Expansion of Networks to Include Less Developed Countries (LDC) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
14.9 Opportunities and the Future
14.9.1 Need for Ocean Observations in Developing Countries
14.9.2 Finally
References
15 Developing Capacity for Ocean Science and Technology
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Making the Case for the Need of Capacity Development to Achieve Blue Economies
15.1.2 The Special Case of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (See also Chap. 13)
15.2 Part I: Building the Foundation of Capacity Development for Ocean Sciences
15.2.1 Global Capacity Development Initiatives
15.2.2 Regional Capacity Development Initiatives
15.3 Part II: Lessons Learned from Case Studies—Success Stories
15.3.1 Integration of Capacity Development Efforts—Scientific Training
15.4 Part III: Looking to the Next Decade
15.4.1 Innovative Capacity Development to Overcome UN Ocean Decade Challenges
15.4.2 Co-Designing Recommendations for Improved Capacity Development for Global Oceanography
15.5 Concluding Words
References
16 Summary Reflections on Advancing Ocean Science for Blue Economy
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Blue Degrowth and Trade-Offs Between Blue Economy Sectors
16.2 Progress in Using Science and Technology: Blue Economy Resources and Sectors
16.2.1 Coral Reefs (Chap. 2)
16.2.2 Seagrasses and Mangroves (Chap. 3)
16.2.3 Coastal Fisheries (Chap. 4)
16.2.4 Freshwater (Chap. 5)
16.2.5 Tourism (Chap. 6)
16.2.6 Oil and Gas (Chap. 7)
16.2.7 Minerals (Chap. 8)
16.3 Progress in Mitigating Environmental Threats to Establishing and Maintaining Blue Economies
16.3.1 Coastal Pollution (Chap. 9)
16.3.2 Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) (Chap. 10)
16.3.3 Ocean Acidification (Chap. 11)
16.3.4 Climate Change (Chap. 12)
16.3.5 Small Islands (Chap. 13)
16.4 Steps in Using Science and Technology Better to Establish Successful Blue Economies
16.4.1 Investment in Ocean Research
16.4.2 Investment in Ocean Observations
16.4.3 Promoting Ocean Science Capacity for Blue Economy in Developing Countries
16.4.4 Current Global Actions for Developing Sustainable Blue Economies
16.5 Concluding Remarks
References
Index