Biotechnology for Sustainable Environment

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1: Environmental Biotechnology: Toward a Sustainable Future
1.1 Introduction to Environmental Biotechnology
1.2 Worldwide Environmental Problems
1.2.1 Environmental Contamination
1.2.2 Global Warming
1.2.3 The Depletion of the Ozone Layer
1.2.4 Acid Rain
1.2.5 Depletion of Natural Resources
1.2.6 Overpopulation
1.2.7 Waste Disposal
1.2.8 Deforestation
1.2.9 Loss of Biodiversity
1.3 Bioremediation
1.3.1 Nano-Bioremediation Technologies for Sustainable Environment
1.4 Biotechnology to Control and Clear Air Pollution
1.4.1 Control Methods of Odor and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
1.5 Soil Management and Contamination
1.5.1 Sources of Soil Pollution
1.5.2 The Available Options for the Integrated Management of Contaminated Soils
1.5.2.1 Controlling Pollutant Entry into the Soil
1.5.2.2 Use of Physical and Chemical Means to Decontaminate Soil
1.5.2.3 Soil Contaminants Bioremediation
1.6 Effective Treatment of Wastewater
1.6.1 Choice of Methods for Wastewater Treatment
1.6.1.1 Small-Scale Wastewater Treatment
1.6.1.2 Large-Scale Wastewater Treatment
1.6.2 Biological Approach to Wastewater Treatment
1.7 Biotechnology Application to Industrial Sustainability
1.7.1 Fine Chemicals
1.7.2 Intermediate Chemicals
1.7.3 Polymers
1.7.4 Food Processing
1.7.5 Fiber Processing
1.7.6 Biotechnology Can Create a Source of Renewable Energy
1.8 Microorganisms in the Environment
1.8.1 Bio-Inputs for Global Sustainability
1.8.2 Antibiotics Are Used to Protect Plants
1.9 Further Biotechnological Aspects
1.9.1 Eco-Friendly Fuels
1.9.1.1 Biofuel Sources
1.10 Biopesticides
1.10.1 Microbial Pesticides
1.10.2 Biochemical Pesticides
1.10.2.1 Benefits of Biochemical Pesticides
1.10.2.2 Limitations of Biochemical Pesticides
1.11 Biofertilizers
1.11.1 Microbial Biofertilizers
1.12 Bioleaching
1.12.1 Bioleaching Uses
1.12.2 Mechanism of Bioleaching
1.13 Bioplastic
1.13.1 Merits of Bioplastics Over Conventional Plastics
1.13.1.1 Biodegradable
1.13.1.2 Eco-Friendly
1.14 Conclusion
References
2: The Mystery of Methanogenic Archaea for Sustainable Development of Environment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Microbiological Facets of Methanogens
2.2.1 Archaebacteria
2.2.2 Definitive Characteristics of Methanogenic Archaea
2.2.3 Anaerobiosis
2.2.4 A Diminutive Historical View of Methanogenic Archaea
2.2.5 Habitat
2.2.6 Methanogenic Phylogeny
2.2.6.1 Methanobacteriales
2.2.6.2 Methanococcales
2.2.6.3 Methanomicrobiales
2.2.6.4 Methanosarcinales
2.2.6.5 Methanopyrales
2.2.6.6 Methanocellales
2.2.6.7 Methanoplasmatales (Thermoplasmatales)
2.3 Morphological, Ecological, and Biological View of Methanogenic Archaea
2.3.1 Cell Shape, Motility, and Gas Vesicles
2.3.2 Gram Reaction
2.3.3 Methanogens as Syntrophs
2.3.4 Cell Envelope, Lipid Composition, and Antibiotic Resistance
2.4 Growth Parameters
2.4.1 Temperature, pH, Pressure, and Salinity
2.4.2 Substrate Range
2.4.2.1 Acetoclastic Methanogens
2.4.2.2 Hydrogenotrophic Methanogens
2.4.2.3 Methylotrophic Methanogens
2.5 Bioeconomy-Based Technologies for Environmental Sustainability
2.5.1 Bio-Based Carbon Dioxide Capture, Sequestration, Utilization, and Conversion (CCSUC) Technology
2.5.2 Anaerobic Digestion
2.5.2.1 Microbial Food Chains of Anaerobic Digestion
2.5.2.2 Methanogenesis
2.5.3 Energy Pool: Biofuel
2.5.4 MEOR: A Combining Hand of Biodegradation and Biotransformation
2.5.5 Microbially Enhanced Coal Bed Methane (MECoM)
2.5.6 Electromethanogenesis
2.5.7 Corrosion Prevention
2.5.8 Waste Management
2.5.9 Bio-Hydrogen Production
2.5.10 Other Active Applications
2.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
3: Chitosan Coating Biotechnology for Sustainable Environment
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Coating Technology
3.3 Chitosan
3.4 Chitosan-Based Coatings
3.4.1 Chitosan-Based Polyester (CHI-PE)
3.4.1.1 Synthesis
3.4.1.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.4.1.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.4.1.4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
3.4.1.5 Swelling Performance
3.4.1.6 Antibacterial Activity
3.4.2 Chitosan-Based Polyurethane (CHI-PU)
3.4.2.1 Synthesis
3.4.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.4.2.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.4.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
3.4.2.5 Wettability
3.4.2.6 Antibacterial Activity
3.4.3 Chitosan-Based Polyvinyl Acetate (CHI-PVA)
3.4.3.1 Synthesis
3.4.3.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.4.3.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.4.3.4 Morphology
3.4.3.5 Swelling Performance
3.4.3.6 Conductivity
3.4.4 Chitosan-Based Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CHI-CMC)
3.4.4.1 Synthesis
3.4.4.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.4.4.3 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.4.4.4 Swelling Performance
3.4.4.5 Antimicrobial Activity
3.5 Summary
3.6 Future Perspectives
References
4: Bacterial Biodegradation of Bisphenol A (BPA)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Xenobiotic Metabolism and Biodegradation
4.2.1 Bisphenol A
4.2.1.1 Production and Uses of BPA
4.2.2 Hazards of BPA
4.2.3 Microorganisms Involved in BPA Degradation
4.2.4 BPA Degradation Pathway and Intermediates
4.3 Case Study
4.3.1 Determination of Enzyme Activity
4.3.2 Observations
4.3.3 Bisphenol A Degradation
4.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
5: Microbial Degradation of Marine Plastics: Current State and Future Prospects
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Plastics: The Marvel and The Global Problem
5.2 The Oceans Plastic Problem
5.2.1 Impacts of Plastic on Marine Life
5.3 Plastic Degradation
5.3.1 Abiotic Factors Influencing the Degradation of Plastic
5.3.2 The Potential for Microbially Mediated Plastic Degradation
5.4 Methods and Techniques Applied in the Assessment of Polymer Biodegradation
5.4.1 Methods to Evaluate Biodegradation
5.4.2 Colonization of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes on Marine Plastic
5.4.2.1 Prokaryotic Colonizers on Marine Plastic
5.4.2.2 Eukaryotes as Plastic Colonizers and Degraders
5.5 Enzymatic Potential of Microbes
5.5.1 General Considerations
5.5.2 Extracellular Biodegradation
5.5.3 Intracellular Biodegradation
5.6 Valorization and Applications
References
6: Mechanism and Pretreatment Effect of Fungal Biomass on the Removal of Heavy Metals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Heavy Metals
6.3 Passive and Active Biosorption
6.4 Fungal Biomass Generated from the Fermentation Industries
6.5 Fungal Cell Wall Structure
6.5.1 Advantages of Fungi as Biosorbents
6.5.2 Fungi as Biosorbents
6.6 Factors Affecting Biosorption Process
6.7 Effect of Pretreatment of Fungal Biomass on the Removal of Heavy Metals
6.8 Physical and Chemical Methods of Pretreatment of Fungal Biomass for the Removal of Heavy Metals
6.8.1 Physical Methods
6.8.2 Pretreatment Using Acids (Das et al. 2007)
6.8.3 Pretreatment Using Alkali (Das et al. 2007)
6.8.4 Pretreatment Using Organic Solvents (Das et al. 2007)
6.9 Mechanism of the Removal of Heavy Metals by the Fungal Biomass
6.9.1 Presence of Functional Groups on the Fungal Biomass
6.9.2 Direct Adherence on the Fungal Cell Wall
6.9.3 Functional Group on Chitosan
6.10 Immobilization of Fungal Biomass for Biosorption
6.11 Conclusions
6.12 Future Prospects
References
7: Metal Bioremediation, Mechanisms, Kinetics and Role of Marine Bacteria in the Bioremediation Technology
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Heavy Metals and Their Sources
7.3 Mechanisms of Metal Bioremediation
7.3.1 Solubilization
7.3.1.1 Bioleaching
7.3.2 Immobilization
7.3.2.1 Bioaccumulation
7.3.2.2 Biosorption
7.3.3 Mechanisms of Biosorption
7.3.3.1 Cell Surface Adsorption
7.3.3.2 Extracellular Accumulation
7.3.3.3 Intracellular Accumulation
7.3.3.4 Precipitation
7.3.3.5 Transformation of Metals
7.4 Marine Bacteria
7.5 Marine Bacteria in Biosorption of Metals
7.6 Use of Genetically Modified Microorganisms in Biosorption
7.7 Factors Affecting Biosorption
7.8 Biosorption Isotherm Models
7.9 Biosorption Kinetics
7.10 Analytical Techniques to Analyse Biosorption Process
7.11 Living and Non-living Systems for Metal Sorption
7.12 Desorption and Metal Recovery
7.13 Future Work
7.14 Conclusion
References
8: Biofilm-Associated Metal Bioremediation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Heavy Metals and Their Toxicity
8.3 Biofilm: Composition and Structure
8.3.1 Composition
8.3.2 EPS Synthesis
8.3.3 Biofilm Structure and Its Formation
8.4 Biofilm-Producing Microbiota
8.4.1 Bacteria in Bioremediation of Heavy Metals
8.4.2 Fungi in Bioremediation of Heavy Metals: Mycoremediation
8.4.3 Algae in Bioremediation of Heavy Metals: Phycoremediation
8.5 Metal-Microbe Interaction and EPS-Mediated Strategies for Remediation
8.5.1 EPS-Mediated Metal Biosorption: Mechanism, Advantages, and Disadvantages
8.5.2 Strategies of Heavy-Metal and EPS Interaction and Its Remediation
8.5.3 Types of EPS and Its Remediation Strategies
8.5.3.1 Dead Biomass EPS
8.5.3.2 Homogeneous EPS
8.5.3.3 Immobilized EPS
8.6 Challenges with Biofilm and Future Prospects
References
9: Phytoremediation of Mine Waste Disposal Sites: Current State of Knowledge and Examples of Good Practice
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Phytoremediation
9.2.1 Phytoextraction in Mine Waste Sites
9.2.1.1 Continuous Phytoextraction in Mine Waste Sites
9.2.1.2 Assisted Phytoextraction in Mine Waste Sites
9.2.2 Phytostabilization in Mine Waste Sites
9.3 Limitations of Phytoremediation
9.4 Conclusion and Future Investigations
References
10: Metallicolous Plants Associated to Amendments and Selected Bacterial Consortia, to Stabilize Highly Polymetallic Contamina...
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Soil Pollution and the Remediation Techniques
10.3 The Use of Metallicolous Plants in Phytoremediation
10.4 The Selection of Microorganisms and Their Uses as Inoculant
10.5 The Combination of Plants, Amendments, and Microorganism Inoculation
10.6 Conclusion
References
11: Bioindication of Heavy Metals Contamination by Mushrooms and Mosses in Highly Industrialized Environment
11.1 Introduction: Mosses and Edible Mushrooms as Bioindicators of Heavy Metals Contamination
11.2 Heavy Metals Accumulation in Mosses and Mushrooms: Evidence from Upper Silesia
11.3 Conclusion
References
12: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Toxicity and Bioremediation Approaches
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): General Considerations
12.2.1 Sources of PAHs
12.2.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of PAHs
12.2.3 Toxicity of PAHs
12.2.3.1 DNA Damage by PAHs
12.2.3.2 Toxicity of PAHs on Human System
12.3 Biochemical Mechanisms for the Microbial Degradation of PAHs
12.3.1 Aerobic Biodegradation of PAHs
12.3.1.1 Oxidation by Dioxygenases
12.3.1.2 Oxidation by Methane Monooxygenase
12.3.1.3 Oxidation by Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases
12.3.2 Anaerobic Biodegradation of PAHs
12.4 Mechanisms of Phytoremediation of PAHs
12.4.1 Penetration and Mobility of PAHs in the Plant
12.4.1.1 The Cuticle
12.4.1.2 Suberin
12.4.1.3 Pecto-Cellulosic Walls
12.4.1.4 The Plasma Membrane
12.4.2 Root Absorption of PAHs
12.4.3 Transfer of PAHs from the Roots to the Aerial Parts
12.4.4 Passage of PAHs into the Plant from the Leaves
12.4.5 Fate of PAHs in the Plant
12.5 Conclusion
References
13: Biogenic Nanoparticles and Strategies of Nano-bioremediation to Remediate PAHs for a Sustainable Future
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Remediation Technologies of PAHs: Overview
13.3 Integrated Bioremediation Approaches
13.4 Electrokinetic Remediation of PAHs
13.5 Enzymatic Treatment of PAHs
13.6 Nano-bioremediation
13.7 Biogenic Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Importance
13.8 Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Biogenic Nanomaterials
13.9 Fungi-Mediated Synthesis of Biogenic Nanomaterials
13.10 Algae-Based Biogenic Nanomaterials Synthesis
13.11 Principles/Strategies of Nano-bioremediations
13.12 Nano-bioremediations of PAHs
13.13 Factors Influencing the Biogenic Nano-bioremediation Process
13.14 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
14: Value-Added Products from Agroindustry By-product: Bagasse
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sugarcane Processing for Generation of Bagasse
14.3 Value-Added Products from Bagasse
14.4 Chemicals
14.5 Biofertilizer
14.6 Materials
14.7 Energy
14.8 Fuels
14.9 Animal Feed
14.10 Biosorbents
14.11 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
15: Bio-prospecting of Fruits Waste for Exopolysaccharide Production by Bacteria
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Bacterial EPS
15.3 Mechanism and Regulation of EPS Synthesis
15.4 Alternative Substrates for EPS Production
15.5 Bio-processing of Fruits Wastes
15.6 Methods of Fermentation
15.6.1 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF)
15.6.2 Submerged Fermentation
15.7 Substrate for Exopolysaccharide Production
15.7.1 Pomace
15.7.2 Fruits Peel
15.7.3 Fruits Juice
15.8 Applications of EPS
15.9 Disadvantages of Using Fruits Waste as Substrate
15.10 Improvement in Strategy
References
16: Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria as Bioinoculants for Plant Growth
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Carrier for the Preparation of Bioinoculant
16.3 Various Important Bioinoculants
16.4 Advantages of Bioinoculants
16.5 Market Demand of Bioinoculants
16.6 Different Types of Bioinoculants
16.6.1 Biofertilizers
16.6.2 Biopesticides
16.6.3 Organic Decomposers
16.7 Methods of Application of Bioinoculants
16.8 Preparation of Bioinoculant
16.8.1 Preparation of Inoculum
16.8.2 Disinfection of Seeds
16.9 Types of Bioinoculant Formulation
16.9.1 Peat
16.9.2 Liquid Bioinoculants
16.9.3 Granules
16.9.4 Freeze-Dried Powders
16.10 Mechanisms for the Plant Growth
16.10.1 Mechanism for the Plant Growth by Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
16.10.2 Mechanism of Inorganic Phosphorus Solubilization by PSMs
16.10.3 Mechanism of Organic Phosphorus Solubilization by PSMs
16.10.4 Mechanism of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
16.10.5 Mechanism of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
16.11 Advantages of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
16.12 Sustainable Approach in Agriculture for the Plant Growth
16.13 Effect of Bioinoculants on the Plant Growth, a Sustainable Approach
16.14 Bioinoculants for Control of Plant Diseases
16.15 Solid State Fermentation for the Production of Plant Growth Substances Using PGPR
16.16 Conclusion
16.17 Future Prospects
References
17: Microbial and Enzymatic Bioconversion of Tannery Wastes: Progress Toward a Circular Economy in the Leather Industry
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Leather Making Process
17.3 Characterization of Leather Industry Wastes
17.4 Bioremediation of Leather Industry Wastewaters
17.4.1 Microorganisms Involved in Synthetic Dye Decolourization and Degradation
17.4.2 Microorganisms Involved in Hexavalent Chromium Reduction and Removal
17.5 Bioconversion of Leather Industry Solid Wastes
17.5.1 Valorization of Leather Industry Fleshings Wastes
17.5.2 Biotransformation of Chrome Shavings Waste into Valuable Products
17.5.3 Valorization of Finished Leather Solid Wastes
17.5.4 Biotransformation and Valorization of Keratin Rich Wastes
17.6 Conclusion
References