Biorefinery: A Sustainable Approach for the Production of Biomaterials, Biochemicals and Biofuels

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Biochemicals
1: Mixed Culture Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production as a Wood Processing Biorefinery Option
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Feedstocks
1.3 Feedstock Conversion Processes
1.3.1 Processes to Produce Sugars
1.3.1.1 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis
1.3.1.2 Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis
1.3.1.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
1.3.1.4 Hydrolysis in Near-Supercritical Water (SCW)
1.3.2 Processes to Produce Volatile Fatty Acids
1.3.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion
1.3.2.2 Wet Oxidation
1.3.3 Theoretical Sugar Yields
1.4 Mixed Microbial Consortia PHA Production Process
1.4.1 Consortia Enrichment
1.4.2 PHA Accumulation
1.4.3 PHA Recovery
1.5 PHA Production Potential
1.5.1 Conceptual Design
1.5.2 PHA Yield and Productivity
1.6 PHA Product Concepts
1.6.1 Global Market Applications for Extracted PHA
1.6.2 Market Applications for Mixed Culture Un-Extracted PHAs
1.7 Conclusion
References
2: Biomass Polysaccharides to Building Blocks: Obtaining Renewable Organic Acids
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Novel Renewable Resource
2.1.2 Biomass Fractionation and Reducing Sugar Extraction Strategies
2.1.3 Purification Treatments
2.2 Global Value and Applications of Some Organic Acids
2.3 Production of Organic Acids from Biomass Polysaccharides
2.3.1 Lactic Acid (LA)
2.3.2 Levulinic Acid (LEA)
2.3.3 Propionic Acid (PA)
2.3.4 Formic Acid (FA)
2.3.5 Succinic Acid (SA)
2.3.6 Acetic Acid (HAc)
2.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends
References
3: Biochemical and Chemical Catalytic Routes for the Production of Biochemicals from Biomass: Current Status and Future Perspe...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biochemical Conversion Route for the Production of Biochemicals
3.2.1 Pretreatment Approaches
3.2.2 Enzymatic Saccharification
3.2.2.1 Solid Loading
3.2.2.2 Enzyme Loading
3.2.2.3 Shaking Speed
3.2.2.4 Additives
3.2.3 Fermentation
3.3 Chemical Catalytic Route for the Production of Biochemicals
3.3.1 Acid-Catalyzed Hydrolysis
3.3.2 Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration
3.3.3 Catalytic Hydrogenation
3.3.4 Catalytic Oxidation
3.4 Current Status and Future Perspectives
3.5 Conclusion
References
4: Challenges in Biobutanol Fermentation and Separation
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Butanol: A Biofuel
4.3 ABE Fermentative Pathway of Clostridium Bacteria
4.4 Microbes Used for ABE Fermentation
4.5 Substrates Used for ABE Fermentation
4.6 Challenges in ABE Fermentation
4.7 Biobutanol Fermentation
4.8 Extractive Fermentation of Butanol
4.9 Biocompatibility of Surfactants
4.10 Downstream Processing
4.10.1 Distillation
4.10.2 Adsorption
4.10.3 Gas Stripping
4.10.4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
4.10.5 Pervaporation
4.11 Conclusions
References
5: State-of-the-Art Technologies for Production of Biochemicals from Lignocellulosic Biomass
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Composition and Sources of Lignocellulosic Biomass
5.3 Pretreatment Methods
5.3.1 Fundamental Pretreatment Methods
5.3.2 Traditional Pretreatment Methods
5.3.2.1 Pretreatments with Chemical Reagents
Acid Pretreatment
Alkaline Pretreatment
Oxidative Pretreatment
Organosolv Pretreatment
Ammonia Fibre Expansion (AFEX)
5.3.2.2 Pretreatments Without Chemical Reagents
Hydrothermal Pretreatment
Steam Explosion Pretreatment
Biological Pretreatment
5.3.3 Emerging Methods
5.3.3.1 Microwave-Assisted Heating Pretreatment
5.3.3.2 Ultrasonic-Assisted Heating Pretreatment
5.3.3.3 Green Solvents
Supercritical Fluids (SCFs)
Ionic Liquids (ILs)
Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs)
5.3.3.4 Other Emerging Methods
5.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass to Value-Added Biochemicals
5.4.1 Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)
5.4.2 2,5-Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDCA)
5.4.3 Levulinic Acid (LVA)
5.5 Conclusion
References
Part II: Biomaterials
6: Current Approaches for Polyurethane Production from Lignin
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Polyols for Polyurethane Production
6.2.1 Polyols from Lignocellulosic Biomass
6.2.2 Liquefaction with Polyhydric Alcohols
6.2.3 Oxyalkylation or Oxypropylation
6.3 Types of Polyurethane Products
6.3.1 Type of Classifications
6.3.1.1 Polyurethanes Based on Their Structure
6.3.1.2 Polyurethanes Based on Their Thermal Behavior
6.3.1.3 Polyurethanes Based on Their Origin
6.3.1.4 Polyurethanes Based on Their Product Applications
6.3.2 Polyurethane Foams (PUF)
6.3.3 Polyurethane Coatings, Adhesives, Sealants, and Elastomers (CASE)
6.3.4 Polyurethane Fibers (PUFI)
6.3.5 Polyurethane Smart Materials (PUSM)
6.4 Greener Alternatives for Polyurethane Synthesis
6.4.1 Bio-Based Isocyanates
6.4.2 Non-isocyanate Polyurethanes (NIPU)
6.4.3 Synthesis of NIPUs Through Polyaddition Between Cyclic Carbonates and Amines
6.4.3.1 Synthesis of Cyclic Carbonates from Bio-Based Resources
6.4.3.2 Synthesis of Polyamines from Bio-Based Resources
6.4.3.3 Lignin-Based Poly(Hydroxyurethane)S (PHUs) Via Polyaddition Pathway
6.5 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno-Economic Analysis of Lignin Polyurethanes
6.6 Conclusions
References
7: Biobased Graphene for Synthesis of Nanophotocatalysts in the Treatment of Wastewater: A Review and Future Perspective
7.1 Background
7.2 Graphene
7.2.1 Synthesis Method of Graphene
7.2.2 Conventional Precursor for Graphene Synthesis
7.2.3 Bio-Based Precursor for Graphene Synthesis
7.2.3.1 Rice Husk
7.2.3.2 Chitosan
7.2.3.3 Glucose
7.2.3.4 Hemp Fiber
7.2.3.5 Alginate
7.3 Graphene-Based Nanophotocatalysts
7.4 Plausible Mechanism of Photocatalysis by Graphene-Semiconductor Nanocomposite
7.5 Photocatalyst in Wastewater Treatment
7.5.1 Graphene-Based Nanophotocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment
7.5.1.1 Removal of Dyes
7.5.1.2 Removal of Antibiotics
7.5.1.3 Removal of Pesticides
7.6 Comparison of Conventional Precursors and Biomass-Based Precursors
7.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanophotocatalyst
7.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
8: Utilization of Rice and Sugarcane Ashes in Wastewater Treatment: A Case Study for Pesticide Removal from Aqueous Solution
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Need of Wastewater Treatment
8.1.2 Biomass and Various Biomass Ashes
8.1.3 Rice Husk Ash and Bagasse Fly Ash
8.1.4 Utilization of RHA and BFA
8.2 Adsorption
8.3 Biomass Ashes as an Adsorbent
8.4 A Case Study
8.5 Conclusion
References
9: Trends and Scope of Utilization of Biochar in Wastewater Treatment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of Biomass Suitable for Biochar Production
9.3 Processes for Biochar Production
9.3.1 Pretreatment
9.3.2 Thermal Treatment Processes
9.3.3 Posttreatment of Biochar
9.4 Specific Characteristics of Biochar
9.5 Classification of Activated Carbon
9.5.1 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
9.5.2 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
9.5.3 Activated Carbon Rods (CTO)
9.5.4 Activated Carbon Fiber (ACF)
9.5.5 Activated Carbon According to the Different Activators
9.6 Biochar-Based Green Adsorbent
9.7 Conclusion
References
Part III: Biofuels and Biorefinery
10: Biodiesel from Biomass: Production of Sustainable Biodiesel Fuel
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Process for Production of Biodiesel
10.2.1 Enzyme-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production
10.2.2 Transesterification Process
10.2.3 Oil Extraction
10.2.4 Transesterification
10.2.5 Homogeneous Catalysts
10.2.6 Heterogeneous Catalysts
10.2.7 Nanocatalysts
10.3 Scope and Challenges for Biodiesel Usage
10.4 Global Biodiesel Policies
10.5 Conclusion and Future Direction
References
11: Bioethanol Production from Agricultural Biomass: Sources of Cellulose, Pretreatment Methods, and Future Prospects
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Source of Cellulose
11.2.1 Structure
11.2.2 Types of Cellulose
11.2.2.1 Plant Cellulose
11.2.2.2 Cellulose from Wood
11.2.2.3 Cellulose from Non-wood
11.2.2.4 Bacterial Cellulose
11.2.2.5 Algal Cellulose
11.2.2.6 Animal Cellulose
11.3 Pretreatment
11.3.1 Physical Pretreatment
11.3.1.1 Mechanical
11.3.1.2 Extrusion/Pyrolysis Treatment
11.3.1.3 Popping Pretreatment
11.3.2 Physicochemical Pretreatments
11.3.2.1 Liquid Hot Water
11.3.2.2 Steam Explosion
11.3.2.3 Ammonia Fiber Expansion
11.3.2.4 Wet Oxidation Pretreatment
11.3.2.5 Oxidative Pretreatment
11.3.2.6 CO2 Explosion
11.3.2.7 Microwave Pretreatment
11.3.2.8 Ultrasound Pretreatment
11.3.3 Chemical Pretreatment
11.3.3.1 Concentrated or Diluted Acid
11.3.3.2 Alkali Treatment
11.3.3.3 Organosolv
11.3.3.4 Ozonolysis
11.3.3.5 Ionic Liquid Pretreatment
11.3.4 Biological Pretreatment
11.3.4.1 Bacterial Pretreatment
11.3.4.2 Fungal Pretreatment
11.3.5 Combined Pretreatment
11.4 Biomass Fermentation
11.5 Green Energy Generation in India
11.6 Future Prospects
11.7 Conclusion
References
12: A Novel Mango (Mangifera indica L.) Seed Waste-Based Biorefinery Scheme
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Development of Mango Waste-Based-Multiproduct Biorefinery Scheme
12.2.1 Selection of Products
12.2.2 Fractionation Sequence
12.2.2.1 Mango Seed Kernel Fractionation
Unbound Polyphenols
Starch
Hemicellulose
12.2.2.2 Mango Seed Husk Fractionation
Hemicellulose
Lignin
Cellulose Nanocrystals
12.2.3 Characterization of Mango Seed Waste and Products
12.3 Implementation of the Mango Waste Multi-step Integrated Biorefinery
12.3.1 Sequential Mango Seed Kernel Fractionation
12.3.2 Fractionation of Mango Seed Husk
12.3.3 Cellulose Nanocrystals from Mango Seed Husk
12.4 Challenges of Establishing a Mango Waste-Based Biorefinery
12.4.1 Practical Challenges
12.4.1.1 Seasonality
12.4.1.2 Storability
12.4.1.3 Moisture Content
12.4.1.4 Location
12.4.2 Economic
12.4.3 Technology
12.4.4 Energy
12.5 Conclusions
References
13: Applications of Life Cycle Assessment in Biorefinery: Case Study on Mango Peel Waste Biorefinery
13.1 Introduction
13.2 LCA in Biorefinery: Need and State of Art
13.3 LCA Framework
13.3.1 Goal and Scope
13.3.2 Life Cycle Inventory
13.3.3 Impact Assessment Method
13.3.4 Interpretation
13.4 Mango Peel Waste Biorefinery: LCA Approach
13.4.1 Goal and Scope
13.4.1.1 System Boundaries
13.4.1.2 Functional Unit
13.4.2 Impact Assessment Method
13.4.3 Interpretation
13.4.4 Limitations of the Study
13.5 Conclusion
References
14: Sustainable Fruit Peel Waste Biorefinery: Challenges and Future Perspectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Concept of Biorefinery
14.3 Challenges and Future Prospectives
14.3.1 FPW Variety
14.3.2 Storage, Handling, Transportation, and Cost
14.3.3 Effect of Preservatives and Pesticides
14.3.4 Use of Land
14.3.5 Predictable RandD Ventures
14.3.6 Pretreatment
14.3.7 Multiple Products
14.3.8 Standardization of Biorefinery
14.3.9 Use of Technologies
14.3.10 Pilot Plant Study
14.3.11 Scale Up
14.3.12 Biorefinery Size
14.3.13 Waste Disposal
14.3.14 Policies for Farmers
14.3.15 Integration Between Policies
14.3.16 Awareness About FPW
14.3.17 Use of Edible Biomass
14.4 Conclusion
References
15: Tomato Utilization: Techno-Economic and Social Aspects
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Valuable Products by Tomato Food Processing
15.3 Valorization of Tomato Processing Unit (TPU) Waste
15.3.1 Production of Carotenoids
15.3.2 Seed Oil
15.3.3 Antioxidants
15.3.4 Fermentation Products
15.3.5 Pectin Production
15.3.6 Water Treatment Agent
15.3.7 Biofilter
15.3.8 Compost
15.3.9 Biofilms
15.3.10 Nanofluids
15.3.11 Dietary Fibre
15.4 Waste/Rotten Tomato Utilization
15.5 Biorefinery Approach
15.6 Tomato Biorefinery: Technical, Economic and Social Perspective
15.7 Proposed Model
15.8 Conclusion
References