Bionanotechnology in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Foreword
Chapter 1: Introduction to Cancer, Conventional Therapies, and Bionano-Based Advanced Anticancer Strategies
1.1: Cancer
1.2: Understanding Cancer and Its Occurrence
1.2.1: Genes Activities Related to Cancer
1.3: Different Theories of Carcinogenesis
1.4: Factors Influencing Cancer Development
1.4.1: Intrinsic/Biological Factors
1.4.2: External Factors
1.5: Microenvironment of Cancer
1.5.1: Tumor Angiogenesis
1.5.2: Physical and Chemical Cues
1.5.3: Acidosis
1.5.4: High Interstitial Fluid Pressure
1.5.5: Enhanced Permeability Retention
1.5.6: Hypoxia
1.6: Cellular and Non-Cellular Components That Support Tumor Growth
1.6.1: Cellular Components
1.6.2: Non-Cellular Components
1.7: Difference between Normal Cells and Cancer Cells
1.8: Conventional Anti-Cancer Therapies
1.9: Cell Death and Cancer
1.10: Advanced Nanotechnology for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy
1.10.1: Key Features of Nanomaterials for Therapy and Diagnostic Applications
1.10.1.1: Nanoparticle size
1.10.1.2: Nanoparticle surface properties
1.10.1.3: NPs in diagnosis
1.10.1.4: NPs in imaging
1.10.1.5: Targeted nanoparticles
1.10.1.6: Nanomaterials to target and regulate tumor and its microenvironment
1.10.2: Challenges Faced by NPs in Combatting Tumor
1.10.2.1: Challenges faced during circulation
1.10.2.2: Challenges after reaching tumor
1.11: Conclusion and Future Perspective
Chapter 2: Understanding the Interaction of Nanoparticles at the Cellular Interface
2.1: Introduction
2.2: Nanotechnology
2.3: NPs and Cell Internalization
2.4: Transmembrane Penetration by Designed Nanomaterials
2.5: Engineered Protein Corona: A Better Drug Delivery System
2.6: Subcellular Interaction of NPs
2.7: Endosomal/Lysosomal Escape of NPs
2.7.1: Formation of Membrane Pores in Lysosomes/Endosomes
2.7.2: Proton Sponge Effect
2.7.3: Fusion with Endosomal Membrane
2.7.4: Photochemical Rupture of Endosomal Membrane
2.8: Tumor and Nanomedicine
2.9: Smart Material as Drug Delivery Nanoparticle
2.9.1: Polymeric Drug Nanocarrier: Act as a Smart Material
2.10: Conclusion and Future Perspective
Nanodiagnostics
Chapter 3: Radiolabeled Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis
3.1: Introduction
3.2: SPECT
3.3: Positron Emission Tomography
3.4: Radiolabeled Nanoparticles
3.4.1: Polymer-Based RNPs
3.4.2: Liposome-Based RNPs
3.4.3: Carbon Nanotube-Based RNPs
3.4.4: Inorganic NPs as RNPs
3.5: Multimodal Imaging of PET and SPECT with MRI, CT, and NIRF
3.6: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 4: Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis
4.1: Introduction
4.2: Principle of MRI
4.3: MNPs as MRI Contrast Agents
4.4: Dual-Mode (T1 and T2) MRI Contrast Agents
4.5: Multimodal Imaging: MRI with PET, SPECT, Optical, and Ultrasound
4.6: Novel Application of MNPs for Imaging
4.6.1: Magnetic Particle Imaging–MRI
4.6.2: MMUS–US Dual-Modal Imaging
4.6.3: MPA–US Dual-Modal Imaging
4.7: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 5: Acoustically Reflective Nanoparticles for Tumor Diagnosis
5.1: Introduction
5.2: Ultrasound Imaging
5.2.1: Microbubble as Contrast Agent
5.2.2: Different Nanobubbles as Contrast Agents
5.2.2.1: PFC emulsion nanodroplets
5.2.2.2: Echogenic Liposomes
5.2.2.3: Polymer-based nanobubbles
5.2.2.4: Solid NPs
5.3: Multimodal Imaging: US Imaging with MRI, PET, SPECT, and PA
5.4: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 6: X-Ray Computed Tomography and Nanomaterials as Contrast Agents for Tumor Diagnosis
6.1: Introduction
6.2: Iodinated and Gold-Based Nano Contrast Agents
6.3: Radiopaque Polymeric NPs
6.4: Inorganic Nanomaterials
6.5: Multi-Modal Imaging of X-Ray CT with MRI, PET, and FI
6.6: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 7: Optical Nanoprobes for Diagnosis
7.1: Introduction
7.2: Optical Imaging with Nanoparticles
7.2.1: Semiconductor QDs
7.2.2: Metallic NPs
7.2.3: Carbon Nanotubes
7.2.4: Polymeric Nanoparticles
7.2.5: UCNPs
7.2.6: Ceramic NPs
7.3: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Nanotherapy
Chapter 8: Nanomaterials in Chemotherapy
8.1: Introduction
8.1.1: DDS
8.1.2: DDS Evolution
8.1.3: Nanomedicine and DDS
8.2: DDS Behavior in Bloodstream
8.3: Drug Release Mechanisms
8.3.1: Diffusion-Controlled Release
8.3.2: Solvent-Controlled Release
8.3.3: Chemically Programmed Release
8.4: Lipid-Based DDSs
8.4.1: Composition and Preparation
8.4.2: Drug Loading into Liposomes
8.4.3: Targeting and Drug Release
8.4.4: Lipid-Coated Polymeric Nanoparticles
8.4.5: Hybrid Liposomes
8.5: Polymer-Based DDSs
8.5.1: Polymeric Micelles
8.5.1.1: Drug loading and release in polymeric micelles
8.5.2: Polymer Vesicles
8.5.3: Polymer–Drug Conjugates
8.5.4: Dendritic Polymers
8.5.5: Hyperbranched Polymers
8.6: Inorganic Nanomaterials
8.7: Carbon Nanostructures
8.8: Nanoscale Metal-Organic Frameworks
8.9: Clinically Approved Cancer Nano-Chemotherapeutics
8.10: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 9: Magnetic Nanoparticles for Hyperthermia against Cancer
9.1: Introduction
9.2: Biology of Hyperthermia and Cell Death
9.3: Heat Generating Sources for Hyperthermia
9.4: Concepts of Nanotechnology and Hyperthermia: Nanothermotherapy
9.5: Mechanism of Heat Generation
9.5.1: Metal Nanoparticle Heating
9.5.2: MNP Heating
9.6: Factors Influencing Design of MNPs for Hyperthermia
9.7: Magnetic Nanomaterials for Hyperthermia
9.8: Significance of SPIONs in Hyperthermia
9.9: Engineered Smart Nanosystems: Drug Delivery via Hyperthermia
9.10: Examples of MNP Hyperthermia in Biology
9.11: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 10: Phototherapy Using Nanomaterials
10.1: Introduction
10.2: Photothermal Therapy
10.2.1: Metal-Based Nanomaterial
10.2.1.1: Gold nanoshells
10.2.1.2: Gold nanorods
10.2.1.3: Hollow gold nanoshells
10.2.1.4: Gold nanocages
10.2.1.5: Gold nanostars
10.2.2: Carbon Nanomaterials
10.2.2.1: CNTs
10.2.2.2: Graphene
10.2.2.3: Fullerenes
10.3: Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) – Introduction
10.3.1: Challenges to Clinical Adoption of PDT
10.3.1.1: Photosensitizers
10.3.1.2: Light wavelength
10.3.1.3: Selective drug delivery
10.4: Nanoparticles in PDT
10.4.1: Passive Nanoparticles
10.4.1.1: Biodegradable nanoparticle carriers
10.4.1.2: Non-biodegradable nanoparticle carriers
10.4.2: Active Nanoparticles
10.4.2.1: Photosensitizer nanoparticles
10.4.2.2: Self-lighting nanoparticles
10.4.2.3: Upconversion nanoparticles
10.5: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Chapter 11: Nanotechnology-Mediated Radiation Therapy
11.1: Introduction
11.2: Radiotherapy: Principles and Examples in Various Cancers
11.2.1: Breast Cancer
11.2.2: Liver Cancer
11.2.3: Ovarian Cancer
11.2.4: Head and Neck Cancer
11.2.5: Prostate Cancer
11.3: Techniques of Radiation Therapy
11.3.1: Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy
11.3.2: Image-Guided Radiation Therapy
11.3.3: Particle Therapy
11.3.4: 3D Conformal Radiotherapy (3DCRT) and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy
11.3.5: Internal Radiation Therapy
11.4: Radiation Induced Cell Death Mechanisms
11.4.1: Mitotic Cell Death
11.4.2: Apoptosis and Necrosis
11.4.3: Autophagy
11.4.4: Senescence
11.5: Risks Associated with Conventional Radiotherapy
11.6: Nanotechnology-Mediated Radiotherapy Treatments
11.6.1: Gold Nanoparticles
11.6.2: Platinum- and Silver-Based NPs
11.6.3: Gadolinium-Based NPs
11.6.4: Hafnium-Based NPs
11.6.5: Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
11.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Chapter 12: Role of Nanoparticles in Cancer Immunotherapy
12.1: Introduction
12.1.1: Innate and Adaptive Immunity
12.1.2: Cancer and Treatment Methods
12.2: Tumor Immune Surveillance and Immunoediting
12.3: Cancer Immunotherapy
12.3.1: Enhancement Immunotherapy
12.3.1.1: Passive immunotherapy
12.3.1.2: Active immunotherapy
12.3.2: Normalization Immunotherapy (Tumor Specific Immune Activation)
12.4: Immune Evasion Strategies by Tumor
12.4.1: Downregulating MHC Class I Expression
12.4.2: Developing Resistance to CTL-Mediated Killing Mechanisms
12.4.3: Turning Off Activated T-Cells via Direct Contact
12.4.4: Releasing Soluble Factors to Inhibit Immune Cells
12.4.5: Inhibiting T Cells through Bystander Effect
12.5: Tumor Immunotherapy: Advantages, Drawbacks, and Need of Combination Approaches
12.6: Nano Immunotherapy
12.6.1: Delivery of TAA and Adjuvants to APCs
12.6.2: Role of Artificial APCs
12.6.3: Direct Activation of TAA-Specific T Cells
12.6.4: Role of NPs in Targeting Immunosuppressive TME
12.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Chapter 13: Nanoparticle-Mediated Small RNA Deliveries for Molecular Therapies
13.1: Introduction
13.1.1: Introduction to Small RNA Deliveries
13.2: Lipid-Based Nanovectors for Small RNA Deliveries
13.2.1: Liposomes/Lipoplexes
13.2.2: Stable Nucleic Acid Lipid Particles
13.3: Structured Nanoparticles for Small RNA Deliveries
13.3.1: Inorganic Nanoparticles for Small RNAs Deliveries
13.3.1.1: Carbon nanoparticles for small RNA deliveries
13.3.1.2: QD for small RNAs deliveries
13.3.1.3: Gold nanoparticles/nanorods/nanostars for small RNAs deliveries
13.3.1.4: Other inorganic nanoparticles in small RNA deliveries
13.3.2: Organic Nanoparticles for Small RNA Deliveries
13.3.2.1: Polymeric nanoparticles
13.4: Natural Polymers
13.5: Small RNA Deliveries in Clinical Trials
13.6: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Chapter 14: Theranostics: A New Holistic Approach in Nanomedicine
14.1: Introduction
14.2: Bioconjugation Technology for Theranostic Materials
14.3: Polymeric Nano and Microstructures
14.4: Radio-Isotopic Nanomaterials
14.5: Nano Carbon Structures
14.5.1: Graphene as Theranostic Agent
14.5.2: Nanodiamonds as Theranostic Agents
14.5.3: Fullerene and Carbon Nanotubes
14.6: Quantum Dots
14.7: Gold Nanostructures
14.8: Magnetic Nanoparticles
14.9: Clinical Translations of Theranostic Materials
14.10: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Glossary
Index