Biomining Technologies: Extracting and Recovering Metals from Ores and Wastes

Contents
Editors and Contributors
Chapter 1: Evolution and Current Status of Mineral Bioprocessing Technologies
1.1 Metals, Minerals, and Human Civilisation: The Context and Early History of Biomining
1.2 The Modern Era: Development and Application of Engineering Designs of Full-Scale Biomining Operations
1.3 The Biomining Niche: Limitations and Opportunities
1.4 The Microbiological Context of Biomining
1.5 Commercial Bioleach and Biooxidation Operations in 2020
1.6 Scope of the Current Textbook
References
Chapter 2: Design, Construction, and Modelling of Bioheaps
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Modus Operandi of Bioheaps
2.3 Design and Construction of Bioheaps for Processing Mineral Ores
2.3.1 Leach Pad Configuration
2.3.2 Leach Pad Disposition
2.3.3 Ore Bed Construction
2.3.4 Irrigation
2.3.5 Aeration
2.4 Modeling Bioheaps
2.4.1 HeapSim2D
2.4.1.1 Solution Flow
2.4.1.2 Solute Transport
2.4.1.3 Gas Flow
2.4.1.4 Gas Species Transport
2.4.1.5 Heat Flow
2.4.1.6 Reaction Network Modelling
2.4.1.7 Microbial Kinetics
2.4.2 Modelling Case Study
References
Chapter 3: Engineering Designs and Challenges of Stirred Tank Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Bioleach Process: An Engineering Design Perspective
3.2.1 Sulfide Mineral Oxidation
3.2.2 Rate of Mineral Leaching and Temperature
3.2.3 Dissolved Sulfate Salts and Metals Inhibiting Microbial Growth and Oxidation
3.3 General Process Design Elements
3.4 Reactor Design
3.4.1 Reactor Configuration
3.4.2 Reactor Geometry
3.4.3 Agitator Selection and Impeller Type
3.5 Gas Supply Design
3.5.1 Oxygen Supply and Control
3.5.2 Supply of Carbon Dioxide
3.5.3 Gas Transfer
3.5.4 OTR Upscaling
3.5.4.1 Volumetric Mass Transfer Coefficient (kLa)
3.5.4.2 Driving Force
3.6 Other Design Criteria
3.6.1 Additional Agitator Performance Criteria
3.6.1.1 Shear Rate Limitation
3.6.1.2 Point of Flooding
3.6.1.3 Solids Suspension
3.6.1.4 Gas Holdup
3.6.2 Reactor Cooling Circuit
3.6.3 Control of Leach Solution Chemistry
3.6.4 Bioleach Solid-Liquid Separation
3.6.5 Materials of Construction
3.7 Examples of Commercial-Scale Designs and Performance
3.7.1 The Industrial Test Reactor (ITR) High-Temperature Bioreactor Plant
3.7.1.1 ITR Plant Description
3.7.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen and Gas Mixing Process Control
3.7.1.3 Oxygen Utilisation and Agitator Performance
3.7.2 The BioCOP Demonstration Plant
3.8 New Developments in the Field of Bioleach STR
3.9 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Bioprocessing of Refractory Gold Ores: The BIOX, MesoTHERM, and ASTER Processes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The BIOX Process
4.2.1 Current and Historic BIOX Plants
4.2.1.1 Runruno BIOX Plant
4.2.1.2 Cam & Motor BIOX Plant
4.2.2 Generation 3 and Generation 4 BIOX Design Development
4.2.2.1 Generation 3 BIOX Design
4.2.2.2 Generation 4 BIOX Design
4.2.3 BIOX at Sub-zero Temperatures
4.3 The MesoTHERM Process
4.3.1 MesoTHERM Biooxidation Cultures and Operating Conditions
4.3.2 Pilot Scale (240 L and 1000 L) Development
4.3.3 Engineering Scale Up (21 m3) and Large Demonstration (80 m3)
4.3.4 MesoTHERM Circuit
4.4 ASTER Process
4.4.1 Process Description
4.4.2 Commercial ASTER Operations
4.4.2.1 Consort ASTER Plant
4.4.2.2 Suzdal ASTER Plant
4.4.2.3 Runruno ASTER Plant
4.4.2.4 Fosterville ASTER Plant
4.4.2.5 Cam and Motor ASTER Plant
4.4.3 ASTER Circuit Design Considerations
4.4.3.1 Feed Solution Properties
4.4.3.2 Biomass Retention
4.4.3.3 Pre-ASTER Cyanide Destruction
4.4.3.4 ASTER Process Operating Conditions
4.4.3.5 ASTER Reaction Products
4.4.4 ASTER Circuit Capital and Operating Costs
References
Chapter 5: Biomining Microorganisms: Diversity and Modus Operandi
5.1 Biomining Microorganisms
5.2 Microbial Role in Biomining Sulfide Mineral Ores
5.3 Biomining Environments and Microbial Diversity
5.4 Bacteria
5.4.1 Iron-Oxidizers
5.4.2 Iron- and Reduced Sulfur-Oxidizers
5.4.3 Elemental Sulfur- and Reduced Inorganic Sulfur Compound-Oxidizers
5.4.4 Other Species
5.4.5 Iron, Sulfur, and Carbon Metabolism
5.5 Archaea
5.5.1 Iron-Oxidizers
5.5.2 Iron- and Sulfur-Oxidizers
5.5.3 Other Species
5.5.4 Iron, Sulfur, and Carbon Metabolisms
5.6 Biomining of Non-Sulfidic Ores and Wastes
5.7 Future Aspects
References
Chapter 6: Biomolecular and Cultivation Tools
6.1 Physiological and Phylogenetic Diversities of Microorganisms Commonly Encountered in Biomining Operations
6.2 Sampling: Sites and Protocols
6.3 Cultivation-Based Approaches
6.3.1 Enumeration, Enrichment, and Cultivation of ``Biomining´´ Microorganisms
6.3.1.1 Microscopy
6.3.1.2 Liquid Media
6.3.1.3 Electron Donors
6.3.1.4 Anaerobic and Microaerobic Cultivation of Acidophiles
6.3.1.5 Solid Media
6.3.2 Microbial Activity Measurements
6.3.2.1 Specific Rates of Oxidation and Reduction of Electron Donors and Acceptors
6.3.2.2 Microcalorimetry
6.3.2.3 ATP Measurements
6.3.3 Maintenance and Preservation of Biomining Microorganisms
6.4 Biomolecular Techniques
6.4.1 Molecular Markers Used in Molecular Detection, Identification, and Typing
6.4.2 Fingerprinting Techniques
6.4.3 Hybridisation-Dependent Approaches
6.4.4 End-Point and Real-Time PCR Approaches
6.4.5 Sequence-Dependent Approaches
6.4.6 Protein-Dependent Approaches
6.5 Closing Remarks
References
Chapter 7: Microbial Ecology of Bioheaps, Stirred Tanks, and Mine Wastes
7.1 Microbiology and Biomining
7.2 Microbial Ecology of Biological Mineral-Oxidising Systems
7.2.1 Heaps and Dumps
7.2.1.1 Microbial Succession and Thermal Gradients
7.2.2 Mine Wastes
7.2.3 Bioreactors
7.3 Challenges and Future Directions
References
Chapter 8: Biomining in China: History and Current Status
8.1 History of Biomining in China
8.2 Biomining Development in China
8.2.1 Macroscopic to Microscopic Views of Biohydrometallurgy
8.2.2 From Qualitative to Quantitative Analysis
8.2.3 From Theory to Practice
8.2.3.1 Biomining of Copper Ores
8.2.3.2 Biomining of Uranium Ores
8.2.3.3 Biomining for the Pre-treatment of Gold Ores
8.3 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Copper Bioleaching Operations in Chile: Towards New Challenges and Developments
9.1 Development and Current Status of Copper Bioleaching in Chile
9.2 Research, Development, and Biomining Applications in Chile: Industrial Cases
9.2.1 BioSigma-CodelcoTech
9.2.2 Pucobre: LIAP
9.3 Conclusions and Future of Bioleaching in Chile
References
Chapter 10: Heap Bioleaching of an Enargite-Dominant Ore Body: Minera Yanacocha, Perú
10.1 Enargite as a Copper Resource
10.2 Alternatives for Copper Recovery from Enargite
10.3 Bioleaching of Enargite
10.4 The Verde Bioleach Demonstration Facility
10.4.1 Process Flowsheet and Design Criteria
10.4.2 Dump and Heap Construction
10.4.3 Inoculation and Commissioning of Bioleach Demonstration Plant
10.4.4 Operational Performance
10.4.5 Lessons Learned
References
Chapter 11: Biooxidation of Gold Ores in Russia and Kazakhstan
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Nordgold Suzdal Mine, Kazakhstan
11.2.1 The Suzdal BIOX Installation
11.2.1.1 The Suzdal BIOX Microbial Culture
11.2.2 Suzdal ASTER Installation
11.2.3 Suzdal HiTeCC Installation
11.3 The Polyus Olimpiada Mine, Russia
11.3.1 History of Field Development
11.3.2 Technological Scheme of BIONORD Processing
11.3.3 Industrial Pilot Research on Biooxidation of Concentrates
11.3.3.1 The Pilot Biooxidation Plant Research
11.3.3.2 Composition of the Microbial Consortium during Industrial Pilot Testing
11.3.4 Industrial Development of Technology for Processing Refractory Gold-Arsenic Ores Using Bacterial Oxidation
11.3.4.1 BIONORD Generation I: BIO-1 Plant (2001)
11.3.4.2 BIONORD Generation II: BIO-2 Plant (2007)
11.3.4.3 BIONORD Generation III: BIO-3 Plant (2014)
11.3.4.4 BIONORD Generation IV: BIO-4 Plant (2017)
11.3.5 Composition of Microbial Consortia of Microorganisms During Industrial Biooxidation of Concentrates
11.3.6 BIO Process Management
11.4 Conclusions
11.5 Technical Note
References
Chapter 12: Biomining in Finland: Commercial Application of Heap and Tank Bioleaching Technologies for Nickel Recovery
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Talvivaara/Terrafame Project
12.2.1 Commercial Implementation
12.2.2 Talvivaara Becomes Terrafame
12.2.3 Future Developments
12.3 The Mondo Minerals Tank Bioleaching Project
12.3.1 Metallurgical and Pilot-Scale Studies
12.3.1.1 Phase 1: Laboratory Amenability Test Work
12.3.1.2 Phase 2: Mini-Pilot Plant Scale Test Work
12.3.1.3 Phase 3: Test Work on the Upgraded Concentrate Blend
12.3.2 Process Design Criteria
12.3.3 Process Economics
12.3.4 Process Description
12.3.4.1 Concentrate Preparation
12.3.4.2 Bioleaching
12.3.4.3 Iron and Arsenic Precipitation
12.3.4.4 Metal Precipitation
12.3.4.5 Recycle Water Treatment
12.3.4.6 Tailings Neutralisation
12.3.5 Inoculation and Commissioning of the Commercial Plant
12.3.6 Operational Performance
12.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Mineral Bioleaching in Brackish and Saline Environments
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Demand for Bioleaching in Saline/Brackish Waters to Meet Challenges
13.1.2 Additional Opportunities of Bioleaching in Saline/Brackish Waters
13.2 Inhibition of Bioleaching Microorganisms by Chloride
13.3 Responses and Adaptations to Chloride
13.4 Bioleaching Processes in the Presence of Chloride
13.5 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 14: Metal Recovery from E-wastes
14.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment and E-waste
14.1.1 Printed Circuit Boards
14.1.2 PCB Recycling
14.1.2.1 Pyrometallurgy
14.1.2.2 Hydrometallurgy
14.2 Biohydrometallurgy
14.2.1 Organic Biolixiviants
14.2.2 Inorganic Biolixiviants
14.3 Bioleaching of PCBs
14.3.1 Reaction Kinetics
14.3.2 Toxicity and Inhibition
14.3.3 Acid Consumption
14.3.4 Upstream and Downstream Linkages
14.4 PCB Bioleaching Strategies
14.4.1 Direct Versus Indirect Bioleaching
14.4.2 Mineral-Enhanced Bioprocessing
14.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Reductive Mineral Bioprocessing
15.1 Introduction
15.2 (Bio)Hydrometallurgical Processing of Oxide Ores
15.2.1 Laterite Ores
15.2.2 Biological Processing of Ni-Co Laterites
15.2.3 Biological Reductive Dissolution of Other Oxide Minerals
15.3 Summary
References
Chapter 16: Biological Removal and Recovery of Metals from Waste Streams and Process Waters
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Reprocessing Solid Wastes for Value Recovery and Environmental Benefit
16.2.1 Tailings Reprocessing and Removal of Impurities
16.2.2 Metallurgical Wastes
16.2.3 Bottom Ash
16.3 Biological Metal Recovery from Process Waters
16.3.1 Source and Chemistry of Process Waters
16.3.2 Biological Methods for Recovering Metals from Waste Liquid Streams
16.3.3 Biological Iron Recovery
16.3.4 Biological Metal Sulfide Precipitation
16.3.5 Biological Removal of Other Contaminants (As, U, Cr, and Se)
16.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: The Future of Biomining: Towards Sustainability in a Metal-Demanding World
17.1 Introduction
17.2 From Understanding the Rate Limitations of Bioleaching Mechanisms to Improved Process Design
17.3 Biomining Unexploited Mineral Resources
17.3.1 In Situ Biomining
17.3.2 Deep Sea Biomining
17.3.3 Space Biomining
17.3.4 Biomining Waste Materials
17.4 Unconventional and Emerging Biotechnologies for Extracting and Recovering Metals
17.4.1 Bioleaching with Unconventional Lixiviants
17.4.2 Bio-electrochemical Leaching
17.4.3 Biosorption, Bioaccumulation, and Phytomining
17.4.4 Biobeneficiation of Minerals
17.4.5 Upcycling of Metals Through Biomineralisation
17.5 Conclusions
References