Biomedical Research, Medicine, and Disease

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Editor Biographies
List of Contributors
Section I Advancement in Techniques in Biomedical Science
1 Recent Advancements in Biomedical Sciences and Their Healthcare Applications
1.1 Introduction
1.2 AI and ML in Disease Diagnostics and Prediction
1.3 AI in Drug Development
1.3.1 AI in Drug Design
1.3.2 AI in Polypharmacology
1.3.3 AI in Chemical Synthesis
1.3.4 AI in Drug Repurposing
1.3.5 AI in Drug Screening
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Nanotechnology in Medicine: A Promising Future
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Reviewing Nanotechnology in Biomedical Applications
2.2.1 PillCam
2.2.2 Drug Delivery
2.2.3 Biomarkers
2.2.4 Microbots
2.3 Cancer Detection and Treatment
2.3.1 Multiplexing and Immunoassays
2.4 Extracellular Cancer Biomarkers
2.4.1 Detection By MRNA and MicroRNA
2.4.2 DNA Methylation Detection
2.5 Nanotechnology for In Vivo Imaging
2.5.1 Challenges in Clinical Translation
2.6 Discussion
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 How Flow Cytometers Work: An Introduction for Biomedical Scientists
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Instrument Fluidics
3.2.1 Flow Cells and Hydrodynamic Focusing
3.2.2 Instrument Fluidics
3.3 Instrument Optics
3.3.1 Lasers, Laser Optics, and the Laser Intercept
3.3.2 Light Collection and Detectors
3.3.3 Detection Optics
3.4 Electronics, Computers, and Software
3.5 Flow Cytometric Data Acquisition and Analysis
3.5.1 Forward and Side Scatter
3.5.2 Fluorescence Detection and Multicolor Analysis
3.6 The Limits of Multicolor Flow Cytometry
3.7 Cell Sorting
3.8 Other Applications for Flow Cytometry
References
4 Multicolor Flow Cytometry and Panel Design
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Basics: Light, Fluorochromes, and Fluorescence
4.3 Spectral Spillover and Compensation
4.3.1 Practical Rules for Good Compensation
4.3.2 Sources of Spectral Spillover
4.4 Resolution and Background: Distinguishing Positive From Negative
4.5 Elements to Consider When Designing a Multicolor Panel
4.6 Multicolor Panel Design Summary
4.6.1 Experimental Controls
4.7 Conclusions
References
5 Digital Watermarking Techniques for Medical Image Security Using the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fuzzy Sets
5.2.1 Linguistic Variable
5.2.2 Fuzzy Number
5.2.3 Fuzzy AHP
5.3 The Empirical Framework
5.3.1 Criteria Selection
5.3.2 Results Analysis
5.4 Empirical Analysis
5.4.1 Fuzzy Pair-Wise Matrix
5.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
6 Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency: Concurrent Approaches and Scope of Regenerative Stem Cell Therapy and Blood Derivatives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Limbus and the Limbal Stem Cell Niche
6.2.1 Structural Anatomy
6.2.2 Microenvironment (ECM) and Putative Biomarkers
6.3 Etiology
6.4 Common Surgical Methods for Treating LSCD
6.4.1 Mechanical Debridement/Keratectomy and Phototherapeutic Keratectomy
6.4.2 Amniotic Membrane Transplantation
6.4.3 Autologous and Allograft Limbal Stem Cell Transplantation
6.4.4 Cultivated Limbal Epithelial Stem Cells
6.5 Regenerative Cell-Based Therapy By Stem Cells: The Emerging Hope
6.5.1 Dental Pulp Stem Cells
6.5.2 Hair Follicle Stem Cells
6.5.3 Adipose-Derived Stem Cells and Conditioned Medium
6.5.4 Embryonic Stem Cells and Conditioned Medium
6.5.5 Umbilical Cord Stem Cells
6.5.6 Epidermal/Epithelial Stem Cells
6.5.7 Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells
6.6 Blood-Derived Factors for Corneal Regeneration: The Budding Potential
6.7 Discussion and Future Perspectives
References
7 White Rot Exopolysaccharide: Avenues to Biomedical Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sources of Polysaccharides
7.2.1 Microbial Polysaccharides
7.2.2 Exopolysaccharides
7.3 Composition and Linkages
7.4 White Rot Fungi
7.4.1 Taxonomic Classification
7.4.2 General Characteristics of White Rot Fungi
7.5 Biomedical Applications
7.5.1 Immunomodulating and Antitumor Activity
7.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity
7.5.3 Antiinflammatory Activity
7.5.4 Antidiabetic Activity
7.5.5 Hepatoprotective Activity
7.5.6 Antioxidant Potential
7.5.7 Prebiotic Activity
7.5.8 Nutraceutical Potential and Functional Foods
7.5.8.1 Nutraceutical Versus Functional Foods and Pharmaceuticals
7.5.8.2 Potential of White Rot Polysaccharide as Nutraceuticals and Functional Food
7.6 Conclusion
References
Section II Health, Disease, and Management
8 Membrane Lipids From Cellular Barriers to Health and Homeostasis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Phospholipids as a Backbone to Membrane Formation
8.3 Lipid Transbilayer Asymmetry
8.4 Aminophospholipids in Health and Diseases
8.5 Cardiolipins as Unique Lipids and Their Functions in Mitochondria
8.6 Phosphatidylinositol Phosphates (PIP) and Signalling Molecules
8.7 Lipid–Protein Interactions as Unique Fingerprints
8.8 Membrane Lipids Regulate Virus Entry and Replication
8.9 Lipid Therapy as a Natural Medicine
8.10 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
9 Childhood Cataract: A Clinico-Social Profile
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification of Childhood Cataracts
9.2.1 Age of Onset
9.2.1.1 Congenital Cataract
9.2.1.2 Developmental Cataract
9.2.2 Etiology
9.2.2.1 Genetic/Hereditary
9.2.2.2 Secondary
9.2.2.3 Traumatic Cataract
9.2.2.4 Intrauterine Infections
9.2.2.5 Iatrogenic
9.2.3 Morphology
9.3 Maternal Malnutrition and Intrauterine Infections
9.3.1 Maternal Malnutrition
9.3.2 Intrauterine Infections
9.4 Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment
9.4.1 Symptoms and Diagnosis
9.4.2 Treatment for Childhood Cataract
9.5 Prevalence and Epidemiology of Childhood Cataract
9.6 Social Factors Affecting Health-Seeking Behaviour
9.7 Economic Burden of Childhood Bindness
9.8 Psychosocial Impact On Children and Family
9.9 Conclusion
References
10 Evidence-Based Practice in Neurodegenerative Disorders: Approaches and Challenges
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Need for Evidence-Based Medicine in Neurodegenerative Disorders
10.3 Evidence-Oriented Approach in the Case of Neurodegenerative Diseases
10.3.1 Screening and Identification of the Problem
10.3.2 Accessing Sources of Information
10.3.3 Analyzing Information / Evaluation of Information
10.3.4 Information Implementation to the Patient
10.3.5 Efficacy Evaluation of This Application On a Patient
10.3.5.1 Research Outcome Utilization Or Response Scale
10.4 Difficulties and Challenges for Evidence-Based-Oriented Approach Against Neurodegenerative Diseases
10.4.1 Heterogeneity in Population
10.4.2 Lack of Etiological Studies
10.4.3 Insufficient Data
10.4.4 Publication Bias
10.4.5 Discordant Reviews
10.5 Concluding Remarks
References
11 Pragmatic Utilization of Technology in Dentistry: Current Status and Future Perspectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Stem Cells
11.2.1 The Three Main Categories
11.2.1.1 Dental Pulp Stem Cells (DPSCs)
11.2.1.2 Stem Cells From Human Exfoliated Deciduous Teeth (SHED)
11.2.1.3 Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells (PDLSCs)
11.2.1.4 Stem Cells From Apical Papillae (SCAP)
11.2.1.5 Dental Follicle Precursor Cells (DFPCs)
11.2.2 Applications of Stem Cell Therapy in Dentistry
11.2.2.1 Regeneration of the Periodontal Ligament
11.2.2.2 Regeneration of the Dentin and Pulp
11.2.2.3 Regeneration of the Oromaxillofacial Structure Craniofacial Defects
11.2.2.4 Soft Tissue Reconstruction
11.2.2.5 Apexification and Apxogenesis
11.2.2.6 Tooth Regeneration
11.2.3 Future Perspectives
11.3 Gene Therapy
11.3.1 Gene Therapy Is a Two-Step Procedure
11.3.1.1 There Are Two Methods of Delivery of the Vector: In Vivo Or Ex Vivo
11.3.1.2 Vectors
11.3.2 Applications of Gene Therapy in Dentistry
11.3.2.1 Gene Therapy for Bone Repair
11.3.2.2 Gene Therapy for Salivary Glands
11.3.2.3 Gene Therapy for Cancer
11.3.2.4 Gene Therapy for Autoimmune Diseases
11.3.2.5 Gene Therapy for Pain Management
11.3.2.6 Gene Therapy for Orthodontic Tooth Movement
11.3.2.7 Gene Therapy for DNA Vaccinations
11.3.2.8 Gene Therapy for Growth of New Teeth
11.3.3 Challenges in Gene Therapy
11.4 Nanotechnology
11.4.1 Various Types of Nanostructures
11.4.2 Applications in Dentistry
11.4.2.1 Diagnosis
11.4.2.2 Preventive Dentistry
11.4.2.3 Restorative Dentistry
11.4.2.4 Prosthodontics
11.4.2.5 Endodontics
11.4.2.6 Orthodontics
11.4.2.7 Oral Surgery
11.4.2.8 Periodontics
11.4.2.9 Dental Nanorobots
11.4.3 Challenges Faced By Nanodentistry
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Stress Deregulates Memory Consolidation Through Epigentic Modifications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Neurocircuitry of Memory Consolidation and Extinction
12.3 Memory Consolidation and Stress
12.4 Stress Effects On Extinction Learning
12.5 Epigenetics, Memory, and Stress
12.6 Conclusion
References
13 The Management of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Challenges Ahead
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Management of Autism Spectrum Disorder
13.3 “Five-Fingers-Approach” for Management of ASD
13.3.1 Behavioral Therapy
13.3.2 Educational Therapy
13.3.3 Focused Interventions and Therapies
13.3.4 Complementary and Alternative Therapies
13.3.5 Pharmacotherapy
13.4 General Guidelines
13.5 Challenges Ahead
References
14 Genetics of Left Ventricular Dysfunction in Coronary Artery Disease
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Inflammatory Pathways
14.2.1 Inflammation
14.2.2 The Role of Inflammation in Heart Failure
14.2.3 Inflammatory Cytokines and HF
14.2.4 Effect of Cytokines On LV Function
14.2.5 Effect of Cytokines On LV Remodelling
14.2.6 Association of Cytokine Gene Polymorphism With LVD
14.3 Sarcomeric Proteins
14.3.1 Sarcomeric Cytoskeletal Proteins
14.3.1.1 Titin
14.3.1.2 Myosin Binding Protein-C
14.3.2 Genetic Polymorphisms in Sarcomeric Genes and LVD
14.4 Signalling Pathway
14.4.1 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
14.4.1.1 Components of RAAS
14.4.1.2 RAAS Gene Polymorphisms
14.4.1.3 ACE I/D Polymorphism and LV Remodeling After MI
14.4.1.4 ACE I/D Polymorphism and HF Severity and Progression
14.4.1.5 AT1 A1166C Gene Polymorphism
14.4.1.6 CYP11B2 T-344C Gene Polymorphisms
14.4.1.7 Genetic Polymorphisms in RAAS and LVD
14.4.2 .-Adrenergic Signalling Pathway
14.4.2.1 1-Adrenoceptor
14.4.2.2 2-Adrenoceptor
14.4.2.3 Adnergic Receptors and Congestive HF
14.4.2.4 1-Adrenoceptor Variants and LVD
14.4.3 JAK-STAT Signaling Pathway
14.4.3.1 STATs
14.4.3.2 STAT Signaling in Cardiovascular Diseases
14.5 Myocardial Remodeling
14.5.1 Matrixmetalloproteinases
14.5.1.1 Matrix MMPs and HF Process
14.5.1.2 MMP Gene Polymorphisms
14.5.1.3 Matrix Metalloproteinases-2 (MMP2)
14.5.1.4 Matrix Metalloproteinases-7 (MMP7)
14.5.1.5 Matrix Metalloproteinases-9 (MMP9)
14.6 Multigenetic and Multianalytical Approach in LVD
Acknowledgements
References
15 Genetics of Diabetic Nephropathy: A Review
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Epidemiology of Diabetic Nephropathy
15.3 Diagnosis of Diabetic Nephropathy
15.4 Classification of Diabetic Nephropathy
15.5 Pathophysiology of Diabetic Nephropathy
15.5.1 Metabolic Factors
15.5.2 Hemodynamic Factors
15.6 Genetics of Diabetic Nephropathy
15.6.1 Advanced Glycation End Products
15.6.2 Oxidative Stress
15.6.3 Hexosamine Pathway
15.6.4 Aldose Reductase (Polyol) Pathway
15.6.5 Renin Angiotensin System
15.6.6 Endothelin Pathway
15.7 Strategies to Identify Genes Associated With Diabetic Nephropathy
15.7.1 Linkage Analysis
15.7.2 Association Studies
15.7.2.1 Genome Wide Association Studies
15.7.2.2 Candidate Gene Studies
15.7.3 Next-Generation Sequencing
15.7.3.1 Exome Sequencing
15.7.3.2 RNA Sequencing
15.8 Differentially Expressed Genes in Diabetic Nephropathy
15.9 Genes Involved in Diabetic Nephropathy
15.9.1 ADIPOQ
15.9.2 TGF-1
15.9.3 TCF7L2
15.9.4 VEGFA
15.9.5 ELMO1
15.10 Epigenetics and DN
15.11 Concluding Remarks
References
16 Human Y Chromosome: Genetic Markers, Implications, and Pathologies
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Evolution of Y Chromosome
16.3 Structure of Y Chromosome
16.4 Y Chromosome: Functions and Associated Pathologies
16.4.1 Testis Development and SRY Gene
16.4.2 Hostile to Turner Syndrome Impact
16.4.3 Oncogenic Effects of Y Chromosome
16.4.4 Other Pathological Conditions
16.5 Y-Chromosome Markers
16.5.1 Types of Y-Chromosome Markers
16.6 Y Chromosome as Population Marker
16.7 Y-Chromosome Haplogrouping
16.8 Conclusion
References
17 Role of Repair Gene Polymorphism and Hypermethylation of GSTP Gene in the Risk of Prostate Cancer
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Historical Background
17.2.1 What Is a Prostate?
17.2.2 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
17.2.3 Tumor-Specific Antigens and Antibodies
17.2.3.1 Prostate-Specific Antigens
17.2.3.2 Tumor-Specific Antibodies
17.3 Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer
17.3.1 International Statistics
17.3.2 Asian Statistics
17.3.3 Indian Statistics
17.4 Risk Factors Involved in Prostate Cancer
17.4.1 Age and Ethnicity
17.4.2 Family History
17.4.3 Socio-Economic Conditions
17.4.4 Occupation
17.4.5 Physical Activity
17.4.6 Diet
17.4.7 Smoking
17.4.8 Vasectomy
17.4.9 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
17.4.10 Alcohol Consumption
17.5 Polymorphisms of DNA Repair Genes
17.5.1 Role of Xeroderma Pigmentosum Group D (XPD) Gene
17.5.2 Role of Xeroderma Pigmentosum Group C (XPC) Gene
17.6 Polymorphisms of Metabolic Genes
17.7 Methylation
17.7.1 Methylation in GSTP1 Gene
17.8 Conclusions
References
18 Lymphatic Filariasis-Visceral Leishmaniasis Coinfection
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Clinical Manifestations
18.3 Lymphatic Filariasis and Visceral Leishmaniasis Coinfection in Rodents
18.4 Lymphatic Filariasis and Visceral Leishmaniasis Coinfection in Human
18.5 Immune Response Against Lymphatic Filariasis and Visceral Leishmaniasis
18.6 Immune Responses in Leishmania–Filaria Coinfection
18.7 Conclusion
References
19 Metabolic Dysregulation, Oncogenes, and Tumor Suppressors: A Highly Orchestrated Performance to Induce Carcinogenesis
Abbreviations
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Glucose Metabolism in Cancer Cells
19.3 Aerobic Glycolysis Pathway
19.4 Kreb’s Cycle
19.4 Role of Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes in Aerobic Glycolysis
19.4.1 Hypoxia Inducible Factor
19.4.2 Protein Kinase B
19.4.3 Tumor Protein P53
19.5 Pentose Phosphate Pathway
19.6 Role of Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes in Pentose Phosphate Pathway
19.6.1 Ras
19.6.2 Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor-2
19.6.3 Tumor Protein P53
References
20 Transthyretin Cardiac Amyloidosis: Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Molecular Mechanism Driving Transthyretin Amyloidogenesis
20.3 Diagnostic Approaches for Transthyretin Cardiac Amyloidosis
20.4 Therapeutic Strategies Undertaken for Transthyretin Cardiac Amyloidosis
20.5 Conclusion
References
21 Pathophysiology of Diabetes-Induced Foot Ulcers and Therapy Options
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Classification of Diabetic Foot Ulcers
21.3 Microbial Loading in Diabetic Foot Ulcer
21.4 Pathophysiology of the Diabetic Foot Ulcer
21.4.1 Peripheral Neuropathy
21.4.1.1 Treatment of Peripheral Neuropathic Disease
21.5 Peripheral Arterial Disease
21.6 Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in Diabetic Foot Ulcer
21.6.1 Treatment of Reactive Oxygen Species
21.7 Charcot Foot Pathophysiology
21.7.1 The Microvascular Structure and Bone Turnover
21.7.2 Charcot Treatment
21.8 Role of Flavonoids in the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcers
21.8.1 Catechin
21.8.2 Morin
21.8.3 Hesperidin (hesperetin-7-Rhamnoglucoside)
21.8.4 Genistein
21.8.5 Rutin: (3, 30, 40, 5, 7-Pentahydroxyflavone-3-Rhamnoglucoside)
21.8.6 Naringenin: (NA), (4', 5, 7-Trihydroxy Flavanones 7-Rhamnoglucoside)
21.8.7 Puerarin
21.8.8 Luteolin
21.8.9 Fisetin: (3, 39, 49, 7-Tetrahydroxyflavone)
21.8.10 Naringin: Naringin: (4', 5, 7-Trihydroxy Flavanones 7-Rhamno Glycoside)
References
22 Current Challenges in Immunobiology of Autoimmunity and Cancer
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 What Is Autoimmunity?
22.2 What Are Self-Antigens?
22.3 Some of the Proposed Ways in Which Self-Antigens Can Promote Autoimmunity
22.3.1 Alteration of Self-Antigens
22.3.2 Release of Sequestered Self-Antigens
22.3.3 Cross-Reaction With Foreign Antigens
22.4 Autoimmunity and Diseases
22.5 The Fight Between Self and Non-Self
22.6 Etiology of Autoimmune Diseases
22.6.1 Genetic Factors
22.6.2 Environmental Factors
22.6.3 Hormonal Factors
22.6.4 Co-Occurrence of Autoimmune Diseases
22.7 Selective Immunotherapies for Autoimmune Diseases (Mackay, 2001)
22.7.1 Monoclonal Antibodies Or Blocking Antagonists
22.7.2 CTLA-4
22.7.3 Regulatory Cytokines
22.7.4 Restoration of Tolerance
22.8 Cancer
22.9 Cancer Immunotherapy
22.10 Divisions of Cancer Immunotherapy
22.10.1 Checkpoint Inhibitors
22.10.1.1 Key Challenges
22.10.2 Cytokines
22.10.2.1 Key Challenges
22.10.3 Cell-Based Immunotherapy
22.10.3.1 Key Challenges
22.10.4 Cancer Vaccines
22.10.5 Immunoadjuvants
22.10.5.1 Key Challenges
22.11 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
23 Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Molecular Epidemiology of Infection and Its Associated Diseases
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Historical Perspective and Evolution of Human Papillomaviruses
23.1.2 Global Occurrence and Epidemiology of Human Papillomaviruses
23.1.3 General Classification of HPV
23.2 Structural Features
23.3 Genome Organization
23.4 Pathophysiology: Mode of Infection and Transmission
23.4.1 Viral Entry Into the Host Cell
23.4.2 Viral Genome Replication
23.5 HPV Diseases and Their Association With Cancer
23.5.1 Diseases Associated With HPV
23.5.2 HPV Cancer
23.5.3 Modulatory Role of HPV Proteins On Oncoproteins and Tumor Suppressor Genes in Cancer Progression
23.6 Diagnosis of Human Papilloma Viral Infections
23.6.1 Presence of Warts in the Human Body Indicates HPV Infection
23.6.2 Clinical Laboratory Tests
23.6.3 Molecular Diagnosis
23.6.3.1 Nucleic Acid Hybridization Method
23.6.3.2 Signal Amplification Detection Method
23.6.3.3 DNA Amplification Method
23.7 HPV Vaccines
23.7.1 Bivalent Vaccine
23.7.2 Quadrivalent Vaccine
23.7.3 Nonavalent Vaccine
23.7.4 HPV Vaccine Dose Schedule
23.8 HPV MiRNAs
23.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
24 Challenges of Multidrug-Resistant Microbes On Public Health
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Common Antibiotics Used in Aquaculture
24.3 Mechanisms Involved in Multidrug Resistance of Bacteria
24.3.1 Enzyme Degradation
24.3.2 Mutation at Binding Site Or Target Protein
24.3.3 Downregulation of Outer Membrane
24.3.4 Horizontal Gene Transfer
24.3.5 Efflux Pumps
24.4 Antimicrobial Resistance in Aquaculture
23.5 Mitigation
References
25 Role of Probiotics in the Prevention and Management of Obesity: What Have We Learned So Far?
Abbreviations
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Environment and Obesity
25.3 Current Therapeutic Strategies for Treating Obesity and Their Limitations
25.4 Role of Gut Microbiota in the Human Body
25.5 Diet-Induced Alterations in Gut Microbiota and Their Relationship With Obesity
25.6 Emergence of Probiotics and Definitions
25.7 Probiotics as Medicines
25.8 Probiotics in the Management of Obesity: Lessons Learned From Animal Studies and Clinical Trials
25.9 Commercial Formulations of Probiotics
25.10 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Section III Therapeutics and Novel Approaches
26 Protease Inhibitors of Marine Origin: Promising Anticancer and HIV Therapies
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Role of Proteases in Cancer Progression
26.2.1 Matrix Metalloproteinases
26.2.2 Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator
26.2.3 Apoptosis and Caspases
26.2.4 Lysosomal Proteases
26.2.5 Serine Protease
26.3 Protease Inhibitors of Marine Origin With Potent Anticancer Properties
26.4 Recent Developments On HIV-PIs Towards Malignant Cancers
26.5 Different Pathways Targeted By HIV-PIs
26.5.1 AKT Pathways
26.5.2 ER Stress
26.5.3 Autophagy
26.5.4 Proteasome
26.6 HIV PIs With Potent Antitumor Activity
26.6.1 Nelfinavir
26.6.2 Lopinavir/Ritonavir
26.6.3 Saquinavir
26.6.4 Indinavir
26.7 Discussion and Future Directions
26.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
27 Skin Stem Cells: Therapeutic Potential in Vitiligo
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Stem Cell Niches in Skin
27.3 Stem Cells in Treatment of Vitiligo
27.3.1 Hair Follicle Melanocyte Stem Cells
27.3.2 Other Stem Cell Populations in Vitiligo
27.3.3 Surgical Methods Employing Stem Cell Populations
27.4 Conclusions
References
28 Interplay of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs) and Tumor-Associated Macrophages (TAMs)...
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts
28.2.1 Different Origins of CAFs
28.2.1.1 Normal Fibroblasts
28.2.1.2 Epithelial Cells Through Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition
28.2.1.3 Mesenchymal Cells
28.2.2 Role of CAF in Tumorigenesis And Metastasis
28.2.2.1 Support Primary Tumor Growth
28.2.2.2 Sustaining Invasion and Metastasis of Tumor Cells
28.2.2.3 Induce Inflammation in Cancer Regions
28.2.3 CAFs as Potential Targets of Anti-Cancer Therapy
28.3 Tumor-Associated Macrophages
28.4 Conclusions
References
29 Lantibiotics: Strengthening Our Armor Against Antibiotic-Resistant Pathogens
29.1 Introduction
29.1.1 Antimicrobial Natural Products
29.1.2 Ribosomally Synthesized and Post-Translationally Modified Peptides
29.1.3 Lantibiotics
29.1.4 Gene Organization
29.2 Genome Mining Studies for Discovery of Novel Lantibiotics
29.2.1 Class I Lantibiotics
29.2.1.1 Mode of Action of Class I Lantibiotics
29.2.1.2 Heterologous Production of Class I Lantibiotics
29.2.2 Class II Lantibiotics
29.2.2.1 Mode of Action of Class II Lantibiotics
29.2.2.2 Heterologous Production of Class II Lantibiotic
29.2.3 Class III Lantibiotics
29.2.3.1 Heterologous Production of Class III Lanthipeptides
29.2.4 Class IV Lantibiotics
29.2.4.1 Heterologous Production of Class IV Lanthipeptides
29.2.5 Lanthidins, Class V Lanthipeptides
29.2.4.1 Heterologous Production of Class V Lanthipeptides
29.3 Structure-Activity Relationship Studies
29.3.1 Impact of Altering Bonds and Bridges
29.3.2 Substitution of Aromatic Amino Acid
29.3.3 Substitution of Charged Amino Acid
29.3.4 Other Sites
29.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
30 Traditional Medicines for the Control of Leishmaniasis: Experimental Studies
30.1 Introduction
30.1.1 Vaccines
30.1.2 Chemotherapy
30.1.3 Immunology
30.2 Traditional Medicines
30.2.1 In Vitro Antileishmanial Activity of Plant Extracts
30.2.2 In Vivo Antileishmanial Activity of Plant Extracts
30.3 Conclusion and Future Implications
References
31 Metal-Embedded Complexes: Accelerated Antimicrobial Activity Against Microorganisms
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Overview of Microbes Present in Environment
31.2.1 Bacteria
31.2.2 Fungi
31.2.3 Virus
31.3 Role of Metals in Biomedical Chemistry
31.4 Antimicrobial Mechanism of Metal Complexes
31.5 Metal Complexes as Antimicrobial Agents
31.5.1 First Transition Series Metal Complexes
31.5.2 Second and Third Transition Series Metal Complexes
31.6 Metallosurfactant as Antimicrobial
31.6.1 Metallosurfactants With Metal Ions in Hydrophilic Head
31.6.2 Metallosurfactants With Metallic Counter Ion
31.7 Conclusion
References
Section IV Drugs and Delivery Systems
32 Stem Cells: Emerging Novel Approaches to Drug Research and Disease Therapeutics
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Classification of Stem Cells and Their Applications in Medicine
32.2.1 Classification of Stem Cells
32.2.1.1 Classification I
32.2.1.2 Classification II
32.2.1.3 Multipotent Stem Cell
32.2.1.4 Unipotent Stem Cell
32.2.2 Clinical Applications of Stem Cells
32.2.2.1 ESCs in Regenerative Medicine
32.2.2.2 TSPSCs in Regenerative Medicine
32.2.2.3 MSCs/Stromal Cells in Regenerative Medicine
32.2.2.4 UCSCs in Regenerative Medicine
32.2.2.5 BMSCs in Regenerative Medicine
32.2.3 Applications in Other Medical Disorders
32.2.3.1 In Neurodegeneration and Brain Or Spinal Cord Injury
32.2.3.2 In Frailty Syndrome
32.2.3.3 In Cardiovascular Disease
32.2.3.4 In Blood-Cell Formation
32.2.3.5 In Regrowing Teeth
32.2.3.6 In Cochlear Hair Cell Regrowth
32.2.3.7 In Disorders of Pancreatic Beta Cells
32.3 Challenges Facing Stem Cell Therapy
32.4 Conclusions
References
33 Bioinformatics Review in MiRNA System Biology and Drug Discovery
33.1 Introduction
33.2 MiRNA
33.3 Target Prediction in MiRNAs
33.4 MiRNA Biogenesis and Function
33.5 Tools for MiRNA Biogenesis and Functional Analysis
33.6 System Biology
33.7 Tools Used for Network Analysis in System Biology
33.8 Pathway and Network Analysis
33.9 Drug Design
33.10 Structure-Based Drug Design
33.11 Target Identification
33.12 Binding Site Prediction
33.13 Molecular Docking
33.14 A Case Study: Computational Repositioning of Ethno Medicine-Elucidated Anti-Harper Drug Target E6
33.15 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
34 Biomaterial-Based Nanofibers for Drug Delivery Applications
34.1 Nanofibers
34.1.1 History of Nanofibers
34.1.2 Characteristics of Nanofibers
34.2 Types of Methods for Producing Nanofibers
34.2.1 Self-Assembly Method
34.2.2 Centrifugal Spinning Method
34.2.3 Freeze-Drying Method
34.2.4 Electrospinning Method
34.2.4.1 Types of Electrospinning
34.2.4.2 Recent Advances in Electrospinning
34.3 Biomaterials for Nanofibers
34.3.1 Alginate
34.3.2 Chitosan
34.3.3 Collagen
34.3.4 Gelatin
34.3.5 Albumin
34.3.6 Silk Proteins
34.3.6.1 Silk Sericin
34.3.6.2 Silk Fibroin
34.3.7 Silk Fibroin Nanofibers
34.4 Applications in Drug Delivery
34.4.1 Wound Healing
34.4.2 Diabetic Wound Healing
34.5 Conclusions
References
35 Therapeutic Translational Potential of Surface-Decorated Nanoparticles
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Surface-Decorated Nanoparticles in Diagnosis of Diseases Via Imaging
35.2.1 MRI
35.2.2 CT
35.2.3 PET
35.2.4 Fluorescence Imaging
35.2.4.1 QDs
35.2.4.2 Silica NPs
35.3 Surface-Decorated Nanoparticles in Treatment of Diseases Via Receptor Targeting
35.3.1 CD44 Targeting
35.3.2 Folate Receptor
35.3.3 Asialoglycoprotein Receptor (ASGPR)
35.3.4 Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR)
35.3.5 Tumour-Associated Glycoprotein 72 (TAG 72) Receptor
35.3.6 TransferrinReceptors (TFRs)
35.3.7 Tyrosine Kinase Receptors
35.3.8 Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptors (VEGFRs)
35.3.9 Integrin Receptors
35.3.10 Death Receptors
35.3.11 Mannose Receptor
35.4 Patented Surface-Decorated NPs for Theranostics
35.5 Limitations and Perspectives
35.6 Conclusion
References
Section V Nutra-Chemistry
36 Towards Developing Biofortified Food Crops for Enhancing Nutritional Aspects and Human Health
36.1 Importance of Biofortification in Combating Micronutrient Deficiencies
36.2 Various Modes/Techniques of Biofortification
36.2.1 Biofortification Through Fertilizer Application
36.2.2 Biofortification Through Traditional Plant Breeding
36.2.3 Biofortification Through Transgenic Techniques
36.3 Agronomic Approaches for Biofortification
36.4 Some Biofortified Crops
36.4.1 Legumes and Pulses
36.4.2 Chickpea
36.4.3 Lentil
36.4.4 Beans
36.4.5 Cowpea
36.5 Cereals
36.5.1 Pearl Millet
36.5.2 Maize
36.5.3 Rice
36.6 Vegetables
36.6.1 Potato
36.6.2 Sweet Potato
36.6.3 Cassava
36.6.4 Lettuce
36.6.5 Carrot
36.6.6 Cauliflower
36.7 FRUITS
36.7.1 Tomato
36.7.2 Banana
36.7.3 Grapes
36.7.4 Mango
36.8 Oilseeds
36.8.1 Mustard
36.8.2 Canola
36.9 Conclusions
References
37 Production of Sesquiterpene Lactones in Family Asteraceae: Structure, Biosynthesis, and Applications
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Structure of Sesquiterpene Lactones
37.2.1 Germacranolides
37.2.2 Eudesmanolides
37.2.3 Guaianolides
37.2.4 Pseudoguaianolides
37.3 Biosynthesis of STLs
37.3.1 Biosynthesis of Germacranolides
37.3.2 Biosynthesis of Guaianolides, Pseudoguaianolides, and Eudesmanolides
37.4 Medicinal Properties of Various STLs
37.4.1 Anticancer and Cytotoxic Activity
37.4.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
37.4.3 Antimicrobial and Antibacterial Activity
37.4.4 Antimalarial Activity
37.4.5 Antiulcer Activity
37.4.6 Antifungal Activity
37.5 Concluding Remarks
References
38 Multiple Therapeutic Applications of Pomegranate Fruit and Its Bioactive Phytochemicals in Health and Disease
38.1 Introduction
38.2 History of Pomegranate
38.3 Phytochemicals Present in Different Pomegranate Parts
38.4 Cardioprotective and Antiosteoarthritis Effects of Pomegranate
38.5 Neuroprotective Effects of Pomegranate
38.6 Pomegranate Bioactive Constituents Target Multiple Oncogenic Signaling and Molecular Mechanisms for the Prevention and Management of Cancer
38.7 Antibacterial and Antiviral Activities of Pomegranate Fruit and Juice
38.8 The Prebiotic Properties of Edible and Non-Edible Parts of Pomegranate
38.9 Future Opportunities, Challenges, and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index