Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: From Basic Concepts to State of the Art Approaches

Contents
About the Editors
List of Abbreviations
Part I: Fundamentals of Biomaterials
1: Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering, and Regenerative Medicine: A Brief Outline
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Biomaterials
1.1.2 Tissue Engineering
1.1.3 Regenerative Medicine
References
2: Metallic Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering: Retrospect and Prospects
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Traditional Metallic Biomaterials
2.1.2 Advanced and Revolutionizing Metallic Biomaterials
2.1.3 Metallic Biomaterials and Biocompatibility
2.2 Properties of Metallic Biomaterials
2.2.1 Phase Transformation and Elastic Moduli
2.2.2 Porosity
2.2.3 Corrosion Resistance
2.2.4 Anti-Bacterial Properties
2.2.5 Bioactivation of Metallic Biomaterials
2.2.6 Biodegradation
2.2.7 MRI Compatibility
2.2.8 Radiopacity
2.3 Permanent Metallic Biomaterials
2.3.1 Stainless Steel
2.3.2 Co-Based Biomaterials
2.3.3 Ti-Based Biomaterials
2.3.4 Tantalum and Its Alloys
2.3.5 Zirconium Alloys
2.4 Biodegradable Metallic Biomaterials
2.4.1 Mg-Based Biomaterials
2.4.2 Zinc-Based Biomaterials
2.4.3 Iron-Based Biomaterials
2.5 Advanced Metallic Biomaterials
2.5.1 Bulk Metallic Glasses
2.5.2 Shape Memory Alloys
2.6 Tissue Engineering Applications of Metallic Biomaterials
2.6.1 Bone Tissue Engineering
2.6.2 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
2.6.3 Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering
2.6.4 Dental Tissue Engineering
2.7 Future Prospects of Metallic Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering
References
3: Bioceramics in Tissue Engineering: Retrospect and Prospects
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Background Perspective
3.3 Bioactivity of Calcium Phosphate
3.3.1 Calcium Phosphates: Variants and Effects
3.3.2 CaPO4 Bioceramics in Tissue Engineering
3.3.3 Clinical Vignettes
3.4 Summary and Outlook
References
4: Polymeric Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering: Retrospect and Prospects
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Extracellular Matrix-the Framework Enabling Tissue Growth
4.3 Polymeric Materials as Ideal Scaffold
4.4 Natural and Synthetic Polymers as Scaffolds
4.5 Natural Biodegradable Polymers
4.5.1 Collagen
4.5.2 Gelatin
4.5.3 Chitosan
4.5.4 Alginate
4.5.5 Fibrin
4.5.6 Hyaluronic Acid
4.5.7 Silk
4.6 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
4.6.1 Poly Lactic Acid (PLA)
4.6.2 Poly (glycolic acid) (PGA)
4.6.3 Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)
4.6.4 Poly(caprolactone) (PCL)
4.6.5 Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA)
4.6.6 Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
4.6.7 Polyethylene Glycol-Based Polymers
4.7 Polymer Scaffold Fabrication Techniques
4.7.1 Conventional (Traditional) Manufacturing Techniques
4.7.2 Nano Fabrication-Based Techniques
4.7.3 Additive Manufacturing-Based Techniques
4.8 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
5: Composite Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering: Retrospective and Prospects
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Bio-Composite Components: Classes and Desirable Properties
5.3 Strategies of Bio-Composite Development
5.3.1 Conventional Blending and Mixing Technique
5.3.2 Advanced Bio-Fabrication Methods
5.3.2.1 Co-electrospinning
5.3.2.2 Bioprinting
5.3.2.3 Reinforcement Methods
5.3.3 Nano-Particle Reinforced Bio-Composites
5.3.4 Surface Modifications
5.3.5 Surface Effects and Characterization
5.4 Retrospectives of Composite Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering
5.4.1 Composite Biomaterials for Hard Tissue Regeneration
5.4.1.1 Bone Tissue Regeneration
5.4.1.2 Dentistry
5.4.2 Composite Biomaterials in Soft Tissue Engineering
5.4.2.1 Vascular Grafting
5.4.2.2 Cardiac Tissue Engineering
5.4.2.3 Contact Lens and Cornea
5.4.2.4 Neural Tissue Engineering
5.5 Bottlenecks of Composite Biomaterial Applications
5.6 Prospects of Composite Biomaterials
5.7 Conclusion
References
Part II: Trends in Biomaterials
6: Trends in Bio-Derived Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Concept of Bio-Derived Biomaterials and their Applications in Tissue Engineering
6.3 Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (DECM) as Biomaterials
6.3.1 ECM and Decellularization
6.3.2 Methods of Decellularization
6.3.3 Regenerative Properties of DECM
6.3.4 Decellularized Material Systems: Applications in Tissue Engineering
6.4 Naturally Derived Biomaterials
6.4.1 Proteins Based Bio-Derived Biomaterials
6.4.1.1 Collagen
6.4.1.2 Gelatin
6.4.1.3 Fibrin
6.4.1.4 Silk
6.4.1.5 Keratin
6.4.2 Polysaccharides Based Bio-Derived Biomaterials
6.4.2.1 Glycosaminoglycans
6.4.2.2 Alginates
6.4.2.3 Agarose
6.4.2.4 Carrageenan
6.4.2.5 Chitosan
6.4.3 Other Bio-Derived Biomaterials
6.5 Microbial Derived Biopolymers
6.5.1 Types of Bacterial Polymers
6.5.2 Biosynthesis and Purification of Bacterial-Derived Polymers
6.5.2.1 Polyamides
6.5.2.2 Polyesters
6.5.2.3 Polysaccharides
6.5.3 Microbial Derived Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering
6.5.3.1 Poly-γ-Glutamic Acid (γ-PGA)
6.5.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
6.5.3.3 Polysaccharides
6.6 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
7: Trends in Functional Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
7.1 Functionalized Biomaterials
7.2 Surface Functionalization Methods
7.2.1 Surface Roughening and Patterning
7.2.2 Surface Films and Coatings
7.2.2.1 Physical Methods
7.2.2.1.1 Physical Adsorption of Active Biomolecules
7.2.2.1.2 Langmuir-Blodgett Method
7.2.2.1.3 Physical Vapor Deposition
Evaporation
Deposition by Sputtering
Plasma immersion ion implantation and deposition (PIIIandD)
7.2.2.1.4 Electrophoretic Deposition
7.2.2.1.5 Spraying Techniques
7.2.2.2 Chemical Methods
7.2.2.2.1 Adsorption Via Covalent Bonding
7.2.2.2.2 Alkali Acid Hydrolysis
7.2.2.2.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition
Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
Plasma Polymerization
Atomic Layer Deposition
7.2.2.2.4 Sol-Gel Technique
7.2.2.2.5 Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Deposition
7.2.2.3 Radiation Methods
7.2.3 Surface Modification by Addition of Signaling Biomolecules
7.3 Functionalized Scaffolds Towards Organ Development
7.3.1 Cardiac Tissue
7.3.2 Liver
7.3.3 Lung
7.3.4 Bone
7.3.5 Dental Implants
7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
8: Trends in Bioactive Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
8.1 Tissue Engineering
8.2 Bioactive Scaffolds
8.3 Incorporation of Bioactive Components
8.3.1 Bioactivity by Incorporation of Adhesion Sites
8.3.2 Nanopatterning
8.3.3 Bioactivity by Incorporation of Growth Factors
8.3.4 Bioactivity by Physiochemical Interactions
8.3.5 Bioactivity by Material Transformation
8.4 Bioactive Inorganic Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering
8.5 Injectable Biomaterials
8.6 Bioactive Scaffolds: Tissue Engineering Applications
8.6.1 Neural Tissue Engineering
8.6.2 Vascular Tissue Engineering
8.6.3 Cardiac Tissue Engineering
8.7 Biomaterial Based Stem Cell Therapy in Regenerative Medicine
8.8 Scaffolds for Biomolecule Delivery
8.8.1 Properties
8.9 Biomolecule Delivery Systems
8.9.1 Hydrogel-Based Systems
8.9.2 Nanoparticle Based Systems
8.9.3 Liposomes
8.9.4 Micelles
8.9.5 Microparticles
8.9.6 Dendrimers and Elastomers
8.9.7 Microchips
8.10 Scaffold Based Biomolecule Delivery
8.10.1 Delivery of Therapeutic Drugs
8.10.2 Delivery of Therapeutic Cells
8.10.3 Scaffold Based Peptide Delivery
8.10.4 Scaffolds for Gene Delivery
8.11 Biomolecule Loaded Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: Applications
8.11.1 Bone Tissue Engineering
8.11.2 Skin Tissue Engineering
8.11.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
8.12 Future Perspectives
References
9: Trends in Stimuli Responsive Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Stimuli Responsive Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering
9.2.1 Electroactive Biomaterials
9.2.1.1 Conducting Polymers
9.2.1.1.1 Conducting Polymers in Tissue Engineering
9.2.1.2 Piezoelectric Material
9.2.1.2.1 Piezoelectric Materials in Tissue Engineering
9.2.1.3 Electrets
9.2.1.3.1 Electrets in Tissue Engineering
9.2.1.4 Photovoltaics
9.2.1.4.1 Photovoltaic Materials in Tissue Engineering
9.2.1.5 Carbon Based Nanomaterials
9.2.1.5.1 Carbon Based Nanomaterials in Tissue Engineering
9.2.2 Magnetoresponsive Biomaterials
9.2.3 Thermoresponsive Biomaterials
9.2.4 Photoresponsive Biomaterials
9.2.5 Chemical Stimuli Responsive Biomaterials
9.2.6 Biological Stimuli Responsive Biomaterials
9.3 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
Part III: Applications of Biomaterials
10: Biomaterials for Hard Tissue Engineering: Concepts, Methods, and Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering
10.2.1 Polymers and Hydrogels
10.2.2 Hybrid Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering
10.3 Applications of Tissue Engineering in Dentistry
10.3.1 Tooth Regeneration
10.3.2 Bone Regeneration in Dental Application
10.3.3 Enamel Regeneration
10.3.4 Dentin and Dental Pulp Regeneration
10.4 Biomaterials Used in Dentistry
10.5 Dental Stem Cells in Hard and Soft Tissue Engineering in Dentistry
10.6 Advanced Tissue Engineering Strategies
10.6.1 3D Printing in Hard Tissue Engineering
10.6.2 3D Bioprinting in Hard Tissue Engineering
10.7 Shape Memory Polymers in Hard Tissue Engineering
10.8 Tissue Engineering Challenges in Dentistry
10.9 Current Clinical Trials in Dentistry
10.10 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
References
11: Biomaterials for Soft Tissue Engineering: Concepts, Methods, and Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Properties of Scaffolds for Soft Tissue Engineering
11.2.1 Biological Properties
11.2.2 Physicochemical Properties
11.2.2.1 Cytotoxicity
11.2.2.2 Fabrication Techniques
11.2.2.3 Surface Properties of TE Scaffolds
11.2.3 Mechanical Properties
11.3 Application of TE Scaffolds in Soft Tissue Engineering
11.3.1 Vascular Tissue Engineering
11.3.1.1 Structure of Blood Vessels
11.3.1.2 Need for Vascular Tissue Engineering
11.3.1.3 Tissue Engineered Vascular Graft
11.3.1.3.1 Electrospun Scaffold-Guided Vascular Grafts
11.3.2 Skin Regeneration
11.3.2.1 Structure of Skin
11.3.2.2 Need for Skin Tissue Engineering
11.3.2.3 Tissue Engineered Skin Grafts
11.3.2.3.1 Injectable Hydrogels for Skin Tissue Engineering
11.3.2.3.2 Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Skin Tissue Engineering
11.3.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
11.3.3.1 Structure of Cartilage
11.3.3.2 Need for Cartilage Regeneration
11.3.3.3 Tissue Engineered Cartilage
11.3.3.3.1 Injectable Hydrogels
11.3.3.3.2 Nanofibrous Scaffolds
11.3.4 Intervertebral Disc (IVD)
11.3.4.1 The Structure of the IVD
11.3.4.2 Need for the Disc Repair
11.3.4.3 Tissue Engineered Disc
11.3.4.3.1 Nanofibrous/Hydrogel Scaffolds for Disc Repair
11.3.5 Tendon Repair and Regeneration
11.3.5.1 Structure of Tendon
11.3.5.2 Need for Tendon Repair
11.3.5.3 Tissue Engineered Tendon
11.3.5.3.1 Injectable Hydrogels Systems
11.3.5.3.2 Implantable Fibers System
11.3.6 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Engineering
11.3.6.1 Structure of Skeletal Muscle
11.3.6.2 Need for Skeletal Repair/Regeneration
11.3.6.3 Tissue Engineered Skeletal Muscle
11.3.6.3.1 Injectable Hydrogels for Skeletal Muscle Regeneration
11.3.6.3.2 Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Skeletal Muscle Regeneration
11.4 Future Perspective
11.5 Conclusion
References
12: Biomaterials for Specialized Tissue Engineering: Concepts, Methods, and Applications
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biomaterials for Nerve Tissue Engineering
12.2.1 Nerve Guidance Conduits
12.2.1.1 Biological Conduits
12.2.1.2 Synthetic NGCs
12.2.1.3 Surface Micropatterning of NGCs
12.2.1.4 NGC Luminal Fillers
12.2.1.5 Stem Cell-Based NGCs
12.2.1.6 NGCs with Sustained Release of Growth Factors
12.2.1.7 Conductive NGCs
12.2.1.8 Carbon-Based Nanomaterial-Interfaced NGCs
12.2.1.9 Ultrasound Treatment Following NGC Implantation
12.2.1.10 Porcine Small Intestine Submucosa Made NGCs
12.2.2 Scaffolds for Nerve Tissue Engineering
12.2.2.1 Synthetic Scaffolds
12.2.2.2 Piezoelectric Scaffolds
12.2.2.3 Electroconductive Scaffolds
12.2.2.4 Conductive Hydrogels
12.2.2.5 Magnetic Scaffolds and Nanoparticles
12.2.2.6 ECM-Derived Scaffolds
12.3 Biomaterials for Pancreatic Tissue Engineering
12.3.1 Biomaterials in Restoring Pancreatic Function
12.3.1.1 Biological Polymer Scaffolds
12.3.1.2 Synthetic Polymer Scaffolds
12.3.1.3 Silk Fibroin
12.3.2 Decellularized Pancreas as Native ECM Scaffold
12.3.3 Surface Engineering of the Pancreatic Islets
12.4 Future Perspectives
References
13: Biomaterials and Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: Concepts, Methods, and Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Biomaterials
13.1.2 Stem Cells
13.1.3 Concept of Stem Cell
13.1.4 Different Types of Stem Cells
13.1.5 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
13.2 Biomaterials and Stem Cells in TE and RM
13.3 Applications of Biomaterials and Stem Cells in TE and RM
13.3.1 Stem Cells and Biomaterials in Bone Tissue Engineering
13.3.2 Stem Cells and Biomaterials in Cardiovascular TE and RM
13.3.3 Stem Cells and Biomaterials in Pancreatic Tissue Engineering
13.3.4 Stem Cells and Biomaterials in Nerve TE
13.3.5 3D Bioprinting and Stem Cells in TE
13.4 Conclusion
13.5 Future Prospects
References
Part IV: Advances in Biomaterials
14: Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: In Vitro Disease Models and Advances in Gene-Based Therapies
14.1 Introduction
14.2 In Vitro Disease Models
14.2.1 Different In Vitro Disease Models Used in TE andRM
14.2.1.1 Primary Skin Fibroblasts as a Model of Parkinson´s Disease
14.2.1.1.1 Advantage of Skin Fibroblasts as an In Vitro Model of PD
14.2.2 In Vitro Model Study of Fibroblast Activation Using Hydrogel Scaffolds
14.2.3 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells as In Vitro Disease Models
14.2.4 Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells as In Vitro Disease Models
14.2.5 Progress in In Vitro Disease Models
14.3 Gene Therapy and Its Applications
14.3.1 Applications
14.3.2 GT in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
14.3.2.1 Heart Diseases
14.3.2.2 Lungs Diseases
14.3.2.3 Liver Diseases
14.3.2.4 Kidney Diseases
14.3.2.5 Brain Diseases
14.4 Advances in Gene-Based Therapies and Its Applications in TE and RM
14.4.1 Adenovirus as Gene Therapy Vectors
14.4.1.1 Adenovirus Based Therapy Using Antisense/Small Interfering RNA
14.4.1.2 Cancer Vaccines Based on Adenoviruses
14.4.1.3 Gene Therapy: Applications with Haematopoietic Stem Cells
14.4.1.4 Gene Therapy and CAR-T
14.4.1.5 Gene Therapy in the Treatment of Adult-Onset Glaucoma
14.5 Biomaterials in TE Based on GT
14.6 Challenges and Future Prospects
References
15: Nanobiomaterials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: Current Landscape and Future Prospects
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Bio and Immuno Compatibility of Nanobiomaterials
15.2 Nanobiomaterials in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
15.2.1 Neural Tissue Engineering
15.2.1.1 Types of Nano-Based Scaffolds Used in NTE
15.3 Nanobiomaterials and Bone Tissue Engineering/Regeneration
15.3.1 Nanobiomaterials Used in BTE
15.3.2 Nanohydroxyapatite (nHA)
15.3.2.1 nHA in Stem Cell Differentiation During Bone TE
15.3.2.2 nHA in Skeletal Defects Restoration
15.3.2.3 nHA in Internal Fixation
15.3.2.4 nHA in Spinal Fusion
15.3.3 Nanostructured Calcium Phosphate (CaP)
15.3.4 Graphene Nanobiomaterials
15.3.5 Titanium Nanobiomaterials
15.3.6 Silica Nanobiomaterials
15.3.7 Bioactive Glass Nanobiomaterials
15.4 Nanobiomaterials in Tissue Engineering of Bone Associated Tissues
15.4.1 Craniofacial and Dental Tissue Engineering
15.4.1.1 nHA in Dental Restoration
15.4.1.2 Nano-Titanium in Dental Regeneration
15.4.1.3 Synthetic Silicate Nanoparticles in Dentistry
15.4.1.4 Graphene in Craniofacial Bone Tissue Engineering
15.4.2 Cartilage Tissue Regeneration (Temporomandibular Joint)
15.5 Nanobiomaterials in Corneal Tissue Engineering
15.5.1 Natural Polymers
15.5.2 Synthetic Polymers
15.5.3 Nanobiomaterials in Corneal Epithelial Tissue Engineering
15.5.4 Nanobiomaterials in Corneal Endothelial Tissue Engineering
15.5.5 Nanobiomaterials in Corneal Stroma Tissue Engineering
15.5.6 Cell Sheet Engineering in Corneal Tissue Engineering
15.6 Limitations and Future Prospects
References
16: Intelligent Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering and Biomedical Applications: Current Landscape and Future Prospects
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Historical Account of Intelligent Biomaterials
16.3 Shape Changing Materials
16.4 Thermoresponsive Biomaterials
16.5 Photoresponsive Biomaterials
16.6 pH-Responsive Biomaterials
16.7 Magneto-Responsive Biomaterials
16.8 Electro-Responsive Biomaterials
16.9 Bio-Responsive Biomaterials
16.9.1 Enzyme-Responsive Biomaterials
16.9.2 Stress-Responsive Biomaterials
16.9.3 Immuno-Responsive Biomaterials
16.10 Other Stimuli-Responsive Biomaterials
16.11 Summary and Future Prospects
References
17: 3D Bioprinting in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine: Current Landscape and Future Prospects
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Background to 3D Bioprinting
17.2.1 Historical Account of 3D Printing/Bioprinting
17.2.2 Set Up and Work Flow of 3D Printing/Bioprinting
17.2.3 Types and Principles of 3D Bioprinting
17.2.3.1 Extrusion Bioprinting
17.2.3.2 Inkjet Bioprinting
17.2.3.3 Laser Assisted Bioprinting
17.3 Bioinks in 3D Bioprinting
17.4 Approaches in Bioprinting
17.4.1 Single Component Bioink Based Approaches
17.4.2 Multi-component Bioink Based Approaches
17.4.3 Approaches Involving Bioinks with Sacrificial Elements
17.4.4 Combinatorial Approaches in 3D Printing/Bioprinting
17.5 Summary and Future Prospects
References
Index