Biology Textbook for Class XI

Cover
Copyright Page
FOREWORD
Textbook Development Committee
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
CONTENTS
UNIT I DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
Chapter 1 : The Living World
1.1 WHAT IS ‘LIVING’?
1.2 DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD
1.3 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES
1.3.1 Species
1.3.2 Genus
1.3.4 Order
1.3.5 Class
1.3.6 Phylum
1.3.7 Kingdom
1.4 TAXONOMICAL AIDS
1.4.1 Herbarium
1.4.2 Botanical Gardens
1.4.3 Museum
1.4.4 Zoological Parks
1.4.5 Key
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 2 : Biological Classification
2.1 KINGDOM MONERA
2.1.1 Archaebacteria
2.1.2 Eubacteria
2.2 KINGDOM PROTISTA
2.2.1 Chrysophytes
2.2.2 Dinoflagellates
2.2.3 Euglenoids
2.2.4 Slime Moulds
2.2.5 Protozoans
2.3 KINGDOM FUNGI
2.3.1 Phycomycetes
2.3.2 Ascomycetes
2.3.3 Basidiomycetes
2.3.4 Deuteromycetes
2.4 KINGDOM PLANTAE
2.5 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
2.6 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 3 : Plant Kingdom
3.1 ALGAE
3.1.1 Chlorophyceae
3.1.2 Phaeophyceae
3.1.3 Rhodophyceae
3.2 BRYOPHYTES
3.2.1 Liverworts
3.2.2 Mosses
3.3 PTERIDOPHYTES
3.4 GYMNOSPERMS
3.5 ANGIOSPERMS
3.6 PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 4 : Animal Kingdom
4.1 BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION
4.1.1 Levels of Organisation
4.1.2 Symmetry
4.1.3 Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation
4.1.4 Coelom
4.1.5 Segmentation
4.1.6 Notochord
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
4.2.1 Phylum – Porifera
4.2.2 Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
4.2.3 Phylum – Ctenophora
4.2.4 Phylum – Platyhelminthes
4.2.5 Phylum – Aschelminthes
4.2.6 Phylum – Annelida
4.2.7 Phylum – Arthropoda
4.2.8 Phylum – Mollusca
4.2.9 Phylum – Echinodermata
4.2.10 Phylum – Hemichordata
4.2.11 Phylum – Chordata
4.2.11.1 Class – Cyclostomata
4.2.11.2 Class – Chondrichthyes
4.2.11.3 Class – Osteichthyes
4.2.11.4 Class – Amphibia
4.2.11.5 Class – Reptilia
4.2.11.6 Class – Aves
4.2.11.7 Class – Mammalia
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
UNIT II STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Chapter 5 : Morphology of Flowering Plants
5.1 THE ROOT
5.1.1 Regions of the Root
5.1.2 Modifications of Root
5.2 THE STEM
5.2.1 Modifications of Stem
5.3 THE LEAF
5.3.1 Venation
5.3.2 Types of Leaves
5.3.3 Phyllotaxy
5.3.4 Modifications of Leaves
5.4 THE INFLORESCENCE
5.5 THE FLOWER
5.5.1 Parts of a Flower
5.5.1.1 Calyx
5.5.1.2 Corolla
5.5.1.3 Androecium
5.5.1.4 Gynoecium
5.6 THE FRUIT
5.7 THE SEED
5.7.1 Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed
5.7.2 Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed
5.8 SEMI-TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF A TYPICAL FLOWERING PLANT
5.9 DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES
5.9.1 Fabaceae
5.9.2 Solanaceae
5.9.3 Liliaceae
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 6 : Anatomy of Flowering Plants
6.1 THE TISSUES
6.1.1 Meristematic Tissues
6.1.2 Permanent Tissues
6.1.2.1 Simple Tissues
6.1.2.2 Complex Tissues
6.2 THE TISSUE SYSTEM
6.2.1 Epidermal Tissue System
6.2.2 The Ground Tissue System
6.2.3 The Vascular Tissue System
6.3 ANATOMY OF DICOTYLEDONOUS AND MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
6.3.1 Dicotyledonous Root
6.3.2 Monocotyledonous Root
6.3.3 Dicotyledonous Stem
6.3.4 Monocotyledonous Stem
6.3.5 Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf
6.3.6 Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf
6.4 SECONDARY GROWTH
6.4.1 Vascular Cambium
6.4.1.1 Formation of cambial ring
6.4.1.2 Activity of the cambial ring
6.4.1.3 Spring wood and autumn wood
6.4.1.4 Heartwood and sapwood
6.4.2 Cork Cambium
6.4.3 Secondary Growth in Roots
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 7 : Structural Organisation in Animals
7.1 ANIMAL TISSUES
7.1.1 Epithelial Tissue
7.1.2 Connective Tissue
7.1.3 Muscle Tissue
7.1.4 Neural Tissue
7.2 ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM
7.3 EARTHWORM
7.3.1 Morphology
7.3.2 Anatomy
7.4 COCKROACH
7.4.1 Morphology
7.4.2 Anatomy
7.5 FROGS
7.5.1 Morphology
7.5.2 Anatomy
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
UNIT III CELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Chapter 8 : Cell : The Unit of Life
8.1 WHAT IS A CELL?
8.2 CELL THEORY
8.3 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
8.4 PROKARYOTIC CELLS
8.4.1 Cell Envelope and its Modifications
8.4.2 Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
8.5 EUKARYOTIC CELLS
8.5.1 Cell Membrane
8.5.2 Cell Wall
8.5.3 Endomembrane System
8.5.3.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
8.5.3.2 Golgi apparatus
8.5.3.3 Lysosomes
8.5.3.4 Vacuoles
8.5.4 Mitochondria
8.5.5 Plastids
8.5.6 Ribosomes
8.5.7 Cytoskeleton
8.5.8 Cilia and Flagella
8.5.9 Centrosome and Centrioles
8.5.10 Nucleus
8.5.11 Microbodies
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 9 : Biomolecules
9.1 HOW TO ANALYSE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION?
9.2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY METABOLITES
9.3 BIOMACROMOLECULES
9.4 PROTEINS
9.5 POLYSACCHARIDES
9.6 NUCLEIC ACIDS
9.7 STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
9.8 NATURE OF BOND LINKING MONOMERS IN A POLYMER
9.9 DYNAMIC STATE OF BODY CONSTITUENTS – CONCEPT OF METABOLISM
9.10 METABOLIC BASIS FOR LIVING
9.11 THE LIVING STATE
9.12 ENZYMES
9.12.1 Chemical Reactions
9.12.2 How do Enzymes bring about such High Rates of Chemical Conversions?
9.12.3 Nature of Enzyme Action
9.12.4 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
9.12.5 Classification and Nomenclature of Enzymes
9.12.6 Co-factors
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 10 : Cell Cycle and Cell Division
10.1 CELL CYCLE
10.1.1 Phases of Cell Cycle
10.2 M PHASE
10.2.1 Prophase
10.2.2 Metaphase
10.2.3 Anaphase
10.2.4 Telophase
10.2.5 Cytokinesis
10.3 Significance of Mitosis
10.4 MEIOSIS
10.4.1 Meiosis I
10.4.2 Meiosis II
10.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
UNIT IV PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 11 : Transport in Plants
11.1 MEANS OF TRANSPORT
11.1.1 Diffusion
11.1.2 Facilitated Diffusion
11.1.2.1 Passive symports and antiports
11.1.3 Active Transport
11.1.4 Comparison of Different Transport Processes
11.2 PLANT-WATER RELATIONS
11.2.1 Water Potential
11.2.2 Osmosis
11.2.3 Plasmolysis
11.2.4 Imbibition
11.3 LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF WATER
11.3.1 How do Plants Absorb Water?
11.4 TRANSPIRATION
11.4.1 Transpiration and Photosynthesis – a Compromise
11.5 UPTAKE AND TRANSPORT OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS
11.5.1 Uptake of Mineral Ions
11.5.2 Translocation of Mineral Ions
11.6 PHLOEM TRANSPORT: FLOW FROM SOURCE TO SINK
11.6.1 The Pressure Flow or Mass Flow Hypothesis
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 12 : Mineral Nutrition
12.1 METHODS TO STUDY THE MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS
12.2 ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS
12.2.1 Criteria for Essentiality
12.2.2 Role of Macro- and Micro-nutrients
12.2.3 Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements
12.2.4 Toxicity of Micronutrients
12.3 MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF ELEMENTS
12.4 TRANSLOCATION OF SOLUTES
12.5 SOIL AS RESERVOIR OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
12.6 METABOLISM OF NITROGEN
12.6.1 Nitrogen Cycle
12.6.2 Biological Nitrogen Fixation
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 13 : Photosynthesis in Higher Plants
13.1 WHAT DO WE KNOW?
13.2 EARLY EXPERIMENTS
13.3 WHERE DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE?
13.4 HOW MANY TYPES OF PIGMENTS ARE INVOLVED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
13.5 WHAT IS LIGHT REACTION?
13.6 THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT
13.6.1 Splitting of Water
13.6.2 Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photo-phosphorylation
13.6.3 Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
13.7 WHERE ARE THE ATP AND NADPH USED?
13.7.1 The Primary Acceptor of CO
13.7.2 The Calvin Cycle
13.8 THE C4 PATHWAY
13.9 PHOTORESPIRATION
13.10 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
13.10.1 Light
13.10.2 Carbon dioxide Concentration
13.10.3 Temperature
13.10.4 Water
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 14 : Respiration in Plants
14.1 DO PLANTS BREATHE?
14.2 GLYCOLYSIS
14.3 FERMENTATION
14.4 AEROBIC RESPIRATION
14.4.1 Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
14.4.2 Electron Transport System (ETS) and Oxidative Phosphorylation
14.5 THE RESPIRATORY BALANCE SHEET
14.6 AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY
14.7 RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 15 : Plant Growth and Development
15.1 GROWTH
15.1.1 Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate
15.1.2 Growth is Measurable
15.1.3 Phases of Growth
15.1.4 Growth Rates
15.1.5 Conditions for Growth
15.2 DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION AND REDIFFERENTIATION
15.3 DEVELOPMENT
15.4 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS
15.4.1 Characteristics
15.4.2 The Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators
15.4.3 Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators
15.4.3.1 Auxins
15.4.3.2 Gibberellins
15.4.3.3 Cytokinins
15.4.3.4 Ethylene
15.4.3.5 Abscisic acid
15.5 PHOTOPERIODISM
15.6 VERNALISATION
15.7 SEED DORMANCY
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
UNIT V HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 16 : Digestion and Absorption
16.1 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
16.1.1 Alimentary Canal
16.1.2 Digestive Glands
16.2 DIGESTION OF FOOD
16.3 ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS
16.4 DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 17 : Breathing and Exchange of Gases
17.1 RESPIRATORY ORGANS
17.1.1 Human Respiratory System
17.2 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
17.2.1 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
17.3 EXCHANGE OF GASES
17.4 TRANSPORT OF GASES
17.4.1 Transport of Oxygen
17.4.2 Transport of Carbon dioxide
17.5 REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 18 : Body Fluids and Circulation
18.1 BLOOD
18.1.1 Plasma
18.1.2 Formed Elements
18.1.3 Blood Groups
18.1.3.1 ABO grouping
18.1.3.2 Rh grouping
18.1.4 Coagulation of Blood
18.2 LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID)
18.3 CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS
18.3.1 Human Circulatory System
18.3.2 Cardiac Cycle
18.3.3 Electrocardiograph (ECG)
18.4 DOUBLE CIRCULATION
18.5 REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY
18.6 DISORDERS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 19 : Excretory Products and their Elimination
19.1 HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
19.2 URINE FORMATION
19.3 FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
19.4 MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE
19.5 REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
19.6 MICTURITION
19.7 ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION
19.8 DISORDERS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 20 : Locomotion and Movement
20.1 TYPES OF MOVEMENT
20.2 MUSCLE
20.2.1 Structure of Contractile Proteins
20.2.2 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
20.3 SKELETAL SYSTEM
20.4 JOINTS
20.5 DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 21 : Neural Control and Coordination
21.1 NEURAL SYSTEM
21.2 HUMAN NEURAL SYSTEM
21.3 NEURON AS STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF NEURAL SYSTEM
21.3.1 Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse
21.3.2 Transmission of Impulses
21.4 CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM
21.4.1 Forebrain
21.4.2 Midbrain
21.4.3 Hindbrain
21.5 REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC
21.6 SENSORY RECEPTION AND PROCESSING
21.6.1 Eye
21.6.1.1 Parts of an eye
21.6.1.2 Mechanism of Vision
21.6.2 The Ear
20.6.2.1 Mechanism of Hearing
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
Chapter 22 : Chemical Coordination and Integration
22.1 ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES
22.2 HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
22.2.1 The Hypothalamus
22.2.2 The Pituitary Gland
22.2.3 The Pineal Gland
22.2.4 Thyroid Gland
22.2.5 Parathyroid Gland
22.2.6 Thymus
22.2.7 Adrenal Gland
22.2.8 Pancreas
22.2.9 Testis
22.2.10 Ovary
22.3 HORMONES OF HEART, KIDNEY AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
22.4 MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
SUMMMARY
EXERCISES