Biology 2e (Spring 2020 Edition)

Contents
Preface
About OpenStax
About OpenStax resources
Customization
Errata
Format
About Biology 2e
Coverage and scope
Changes to the Second Edition
Pedagogical foundation
Art and animations that engage
Additional resources
Student and instructor resources
Community Hubs
Technology partners
About the authors
Second edition authors and reviewers
First edition authors and reviewers
Chapter 1 The Study of Life
Introduction
Chapter Outline
1.1 The Science of Biology
The Process of Science
Natural Sciences
Scientific Reasoning
The Scientific Method
Proposing a Hypothesis
Testing a Hypothesis
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
Two Types of Science: Basic Science and Applied Science
Reporting Scientific Work
1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology
Properties of Life
Order
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
Link to Learning
Reproduction
Adaptation
Growth and Development
Regulation/Homeostasis
Energy Processing
Evolution
Levels of Organization of Living Things
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
The Diversity of Life
Evolution Connection
Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree
Branches of Biological Study
Career Connection
Forensic Scientist
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
1.1 The Science of Biology
1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 2 The Chemical Foundation of Life
Introduction
Chapter Outline
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
The Structure of the Atom
Atomic Number and Mass
Visual Connection
Isotopes
Evolution Connection
Carbon Dating
Link to Learning
The Periodic Table
Electron Shells and the Bohr Model
Visual Connection
Electron Orbitals
Link to Learning
Chemical Reactions and Molecules
Ions and Ionic Bonds
Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions
Link to Learning
Polar Covalent Bonds
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds and Van Der Waals Interactions
Career Connection
Pharmaceutical Chemist
2.2 Water
Water’s Polarity
Water’s States: Gas, Liquid, and Solid
Link to Learning
Water’s High Heat Capacity
Water’s Heat of Vaporization
Water’s Solvent Properties
Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties
pH, Buffers, Acids, and Bases
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
2.3 Carbon
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon Chains
Hydrocarbon Rings
Isomers
Visual Connection
Enantiomers
Functional Groups
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
2.2 Water
2.3 Carbon
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 3 Biological Macromolecules
Introduction
Chapter Outline
3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
Link to Learning
3.2 Carbohydrates
Molecular Structures
Monosaccharides
Visual Connection
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Career Connection
Registered Dietitian
Benefits of Carbohydrates
Link to Learning
3.3 Lipids
Fats and Oils
Trans Fats
Omega Fatty Acids
Waxes
Phospholipids
Steroids
Link to Learning
3.4 Proteins
Types and Functions of Proteins
Amino Acids
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c
Protein Structure
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
Denaturation and Protein Folding
Link to Learning
3.5 Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
DNA Double-Helix Structure
Visual Connection
RNA
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules
3.2 Carbohydrates
3.3 Lipids
3.4 Proteins
3.5 Nucleic Acids
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 4 Cell Structure
Introduction
Chapter Outline
4.1 Studying Cells
Microscopy
Light Microscopes
Electron Microscopes
Link to Learning
Cell Theory
Career Connection
Cytotechnologist
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells
Components of Prokaryotic Cells
Career Connection
Microbiologist
Cell Size
Visual Connection
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells
Visual Connection
The Plasma Membrane
The Cytoplasm
The Nucleus
The Nuclear Envelope
Chromatin and Chromosomes
The Nucleolus
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Peroxisomes
Vesicles and Vacuoles
Animal Cells versus Plant Cells
The Centrosome
Lysosomes
The Cell Wall
Chloroplasts
Evolution Connection
Endosymbiosis
The Central Vacuole
4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins
Visual Connection
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Cardiologist
The Golgi Apparatus
Career Connection
Geneticist
Lysosomes
4.5 The Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
Link to Learning
Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules
Flagella and Cilia
4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities
Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
Intercellular Junctions
Plasmodesmata
Tight Junctions
Desmosomes
Gap Junctions
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
4.1 Studying Cells
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells
4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins
4.5 The Cytoskeleton
4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 5 Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes
Introduction
Chapter Outline
5.1 Components and Structure
Fluid Mosaic Model
Phospholipids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Evolution Connection
How Viruses Infect Specific Organs
Membrane Fluidity
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Immunologist
5.2 Passive Transport
Selective Permeability
Diffusion
Factors That Affect Diffusion
Facilitated transport
Channels
Carrier Proteins
Osmosis
Mechanism
Tonicity
Hypotonic Solutions
Hypertonic Solutions
Isotonic Solutions
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Tonicity in Living Systems
5.3 Active Transport
Electrochemical Gradient
Visual Connection
Moving Against a Gradient
Carrier Proteins for Active Transport
Primary Active Transport
Link to Learning
Secondary Active Transport (Co-transport)
Visual Connection
5.4 Bulk Transport
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
Link to Learning
Exocytosis
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
5.1 Components and Structure
5.2 Passive Transport
5.3 Active Transport
5.4 Bulk Transport
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 6 Metabolism
Introduction
Chapter Outline
6.1 Energy and Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Metabolic Pathways
Evolution Connection
Evolution of Metabolic Pathways
Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways
6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy
Energy Types
Link to Learning
Free Energy
Endergonic Reactions and Exergonic Reactions
Visual Connection
Activation Energy
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Scientific Method Connection
Transfer of Energy and the Resulting Entropy
6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
6.5 Enzymes
Enzyme Active Site and Substrate Specificity
Induced Fit and Enzyme Function
Link to Learning
Metabolism Control Through Enzyme Regulation
Molecular Regulation of Enzymes
Everyday Connection
Drug Discovery by Looking for Inhibitors of Key Enzymes in Specific Pathways
Enzyme Compartmentalization
Feedback Inhibition in Metabolic Pathways
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
6.1 Energy and Metabolism
6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy
6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics
6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
6.5 Enzymes
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration
Introduction
Chapter Outline
7.1 Energy in Living Systems
Electrons and Energy
Electron Carriers
ATP in Living Systems
ATP Structure and Function
Energy from ATP
Phosphorylation
Substrate Phosphorylation
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Career Connection
Mitochondrial Disease Physician
7.2 Glycolysis
First Half of Glycolysis (Energy-Requiring Steps)
Second Half of Glycolysis (Energy-Releasing Steps)
Link to Learning
Outcomes of Glycolysis
7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
Breakdown of Pyruvate
Acetyl CoA to CO2
Citric Acid Cycle
Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle
Link to Learning
Products of the Citric Acid Cycle
7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation
Electron Transport Chain
Complex I
Q and Complex II
Complex III
Complex IV
Chemiosmosis
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
ATP Yield
7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen
Anaerobic Cellular Respiration
Link to Learning
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Visual Connection
Alcohol Fermentation
Other Types of Fermentation
7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
Connections of Other Sugars to Glucose Metabolism
Connections of Proteins to Glucose Metabolism
Connections of Lipid and Glucose Metabolisms
Evolution Connection
Pathways of Photosynthesis and Cellular Metabolism
7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration
Regulatory Mechanisms
Control of Catabolic Pathways
Glycolysis
Citric Acid Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
7.1 Energy in Living Systems
7.2 Glycolysis
7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle
7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation
7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen
7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways
7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 8 Photosynthesis
Introduction
Chapter Outline
8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis
Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis
Basic Photosynthetic Structures
Visual Connection
The Two Parts of Photosynthesis
Link to Learning
Everyday Connection
Photosynthesis at the Grocery Store
8.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
What Is Light Energy?
Absorption of Light
Understanding Pigments
How Light-Dependent Reactions Work
Visual Connection
Generating an Energy Carrier: ATP
Link to Learning
8.3 Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules
The Calvin Cycle
Stage 1: Fixation
Visual Connection
Stage 2: Reduction
Stage 3: Regeneration
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Photosynthesis
The Energy Cycle
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
8.1 Overview of Photosynthesis
8.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis
8.3 Using Light Energy to Make Organic Molecules
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 9 Cell Communication
Introduction
Chapter Outline
9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
Forms of Signaling
Paracrine Signaling
Endocrine Signaling
Autocrine Signaling
Direct Signaling Across Gap Junctions
Types of Receptors
Internal receptors
Cell-Surface Receptors
Evolution Connection
How Viruses Recognize a Host
Visual Connection
Signaling Molecules
Small Hydrophobic Ligands
Water-Soluble Ligands
Other Ligands
9.2 Propagation of the Signal
Binding Initiates a Signaling Pathway
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Methods of Intracellular Signaling
Phosphorylation
Second Messengers
9.3 Response to the Signal
Gene Expression
Increase in Cellular Metabolism
Cell Growth
Career Connection
Cancer Biologist
Cell Death
Termination of the Signal Cascade
9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms
Signaling in Yeast
Signaling in Bacteria
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Cellular Communication in Yeasts
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
9.1 Signaling Molecules and Cellular Receptors
9.2 Propagation of the Signal
9.3 Response to the Signal
9.4 Signaling in Single-Celled Organisms
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 10 Cell Reproduction
Introduction
Chapter Outline
10.1 Cell Division
Genomic DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction
Link to Learning
10.2 The Cell Cycle
Interphase
G1 Phase (First Gap)
S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)
G2 Phase (Second Gap)
The Mitotic Phase
Link to Learning
Karyokinesis (Mitosis)
Visual Connection
Cytokinesis
G0 Phase
Scientific Method Connection
Determine the Time Spent in Cell-Cycle Stages
10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
Regulation of the Cell Cycle by External Events
Regulation at Internal Checkpoints
The G1 Checkpoint
The G2 Checkpoint
The M Checkpoint
Link to Learning
Regulator Molecules of the Cell Cycle
Positive Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Negative Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Visual Connection
10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle
Proto-oncogenes
Tumor Suppressor Genes
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division
Binary Fission
Evolution Connection
Mitotic Spindle Apparatus
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
10.1 Cell Division
10.2 The Cell Cycle
10.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
10.4 Cancer and the Cell Cycle
10.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 11 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
Introduction
Chapter Outline
11.1 The Process of Meiosis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Prometaphase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Link to Learning
Meiosis II
Prophase II
Prometaphase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
Evolution Connection
The Mystery of the Evolution of Meiosis
Link to Learning
11.2 Sexual Reproduction
Evolution Connection
The Red Queen Hypothesis
Life Cycles of Sexually Reproducing Organisms
Visual Connection
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
11.1 The Process of Meiosis
11.2 Sexual Reproduction
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 12 Mendel's Experiments and Heredity
Introduction
Chapter Outline
12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability
Mendel’s Model System
Mendelian Crosses
Garden Pea Characteristics Revealed the Basics of Heredity
Probability Basics
The Product Rule and Sum Rule
12.2 Characteristics and Traits
Phenotypes and Genotypes
Dominant and Recessive Alleles
The Punnett Square Approach for a Monohybrid Cross
The Test Cross Distinguishes the Dominant Phenotype
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
Alternatives to Dominance and Recessiveness
Incomplete Dominance
Codominance
Multiple Alleles
Evolution Connection
Multiple Alleles Confer Drug Resistance in the Malaria Parasite
X-Linked Traits
Visual Connection
Human Sex-linked Disorders
Link to Learning
Lethality
12.3 Laws of Inheritance
Pairs of Unit Factors, or Genes
Alleles Can Be Dominant or Recessive
Equal Segregation of Alleles
Independent Assortment
Visual Connection
Forked-Line Method
Probability Method
Rules for Multihybrid Fertilization
Linked Genes Violate the Law of Independent Assortment
Scientific Method Connection
Testing the Hypothesis of Independent Assortment
Epistasis
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
12.1 Mendel’s Experiments and the Laws of Probability
12.2 Characteristics and Traits
12.3 Laws of Inheritance
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 13 Modern Understandings of Inheritance
Introduction
Chapter Outline
13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Genetic Linkage and Distances
Homologous Recombination
Visual Connection
Genetic Maps
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Mendel’s Mapped Traits
13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
Chromosome Identification
Career Connection
Geneticists Use Karyograms to Identify Chromosomal Aberrations
Chromosome Number Disorders
Visual Connection
Aneuploidy
Link to Learning
Polyploidy
Sex Chromosome Nondisjunction in Humans
Duplications and Deletions
Chromosomal Structural Rearrangements
Chromosome Inversions
Evolution Connection
The Chromosome 18 Inversion
Translocations
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
13.1 Chromosomal Theory and Genetic Linkage
13.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inherited Disorders
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 14 DNA Structure and Function
Introduction
Chapter Outline
14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Forensic Scientist
14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing
Visual Connection
DNA Sequencing Techniques
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Neanderthal Genome: How Are We Related?
Link to Learning
DNA Packaging in Cells
Visual Connection
14.3 Basics of DNA Replication
Link to Learning
14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
Telomere replication
Telomerase and Aging
14.6 DNA Repair
Visual Connection
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
14.1 Historical Basis of Modern Understanding
14.2 DNA Structure and Sequencing
14.3 Basics of DNA Replication
14.4 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
14.5 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
14.6 DNA Repair
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 15 Genes and Proteins
Introduction
Chapter Outline
15.1 The Genetic Code
The Central Dogma: DNA Encodes RNA; RNA Encodes Protein
The Genetic Code Is Degenerate and Universal
Link to Learning
Scientific Method Connection
Which Has More DNA: A Kiwi or a Strawberry?
15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription
Initiation of Transcription in Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic RNA Polymerase
Prokaryotic Promoters
Link to Learning
Elongation and Termination in Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic Termination Signals
Link to Learning
15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription
Initiation of Transcription in Eukaryotes
The Three Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases
RNA Polymerase II Promoters and Transcription Factors
Visual Connection
Promoter Structures for RNA Polymerases I and III
Evolution Connection
The Evolution of Promoters
Eukaryotic Elongation and Termination
15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
mRNA Processing
Evolution Connection
RNA Editing in Trypanosomes
5' Capping
3' Poly-A Tail
Pre-mRNA Splicing
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Processing of tRNAs and rRNAs
15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
The Protein Synthesis Machinery
Link to Learning
Ribosomes
tRNAs
Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases
The Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
Initiation of Translation
Translation, Elongation, and Termination
Visual Connection
Protein Folding, Modification, and Targeting
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
15.1 The Genetic Code
15.2 Prokaryotic Transcription
15.3 Eukaryotic Transcription
15.4 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
15.5 Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 16 Gene Expression
Introduction
Chapter Outline
16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Gene Expression
Evolution Connection
Evolution of Gene Regulation
16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
The trp Operon: A Repressible Operon
Link to Learning
Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP): A Transcriptional Activator
The lac Operon: An Inducible Operon
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
Epigenetic Control: Regulating Access to Genes within the Chromosome
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
16.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation
Link to Learning
The Promoter and the Transcription Machinery
Enhancers and Transcription
Turning Genes Off: Transcriptional Repressors
16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
RNA Splicing, the First Stage of Post-transcriptional Control
Evolution Connection
Alternative RNA Splicing
Link to Learning
Control of RNA Stability
RNA Stability and microRNAs
16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
The Initiation Complex and Translation Rate
Visual Connection
Chemical Modifications, Protein Activity, and Longevity
16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation
Cancer: Disease of Altered Gene Expression
Tumor Suppressor Genes, Oncogenes, and Cancer
Link to Learning
Cancer and Epigenetic Alterations
Cancer and Transcriptional Control
Cancer and Post-transcriptional Control
Cancer and Translational/Post-translational Control
New Drugs to Combat Cancer: Targeted Therapies
Career Connection
Clinical Trial Coordinator
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression
16.2 Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
16.3 Eukaryotic Epigenetic Gene Regulation
16.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Gene Regulation
16.5 Eukaryotic Post-transcriptional Gene Regulation
16.6 Eukaryotic Translational and Post-translational Gene Regulation
16.7 Cancer and Gene Regulation
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 17 Biotechnology and Genomics
Introduction
Chapter Outline
17.1 Biotechnology
Basic Techniques to Manipulate Genetic Material (DNA and RNA)
DNA and RNA Extraction
Gel Electrophoresis
Nucleic Acid Fragment Amplification by Polymerase Chain Reaction
Link to Learning
Hybridization, Southern Blotting, and Northern Blotting
Molecular Cloning
Recombinant DNA Molecules
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Cellular Cloning
Reproductive Cloning
Visual Connection
Genetic Engineering
Gene Targeting
Biotechnology in Medicine and Agriculture
Genetic Diagnosis and Gene Therapy
Production of Vaccines, Antibiotics, and Hormones
Transgenic Animals
Transgenic Plants
Transformation of Plants Using Agrobacterium tumefaciens
The Organic Insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis
Flavr Savr Tomato
17.2 Mapping Genomes
Genetic Maps
Physical Maps
Genetic and Physical Maps Integration
Scientific Method Connection
How to Use a Genome Map Viewer
Link to Learning
17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing
Strategies Used in Sequencing Projects
Early Strategies: Shotgun Sequencing and Pair-Wise End Sequencing
Next-generation Sequencing
Evolution Connection
Comparing Sequences
Use of Whole-Genome Sequences of Model Organisms
Link to Learning
Genome Sequence Uses
17.4 Applying Genomics
Predicting Disease Risk at the Individual Level
Visual Connection
Pharmacogenomics and Toxicogenomics
Microbial Genomics: Metagenomics
Microbial Genomics: Creation of New Biofuels
Mitochondrial Genomics
Genomics in Agriculture
17.5 Genomics and Proteomics
Basic Techniques in Protein Analysis
Cancer Proteomics
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
17.1 Biotechnology
17.2 Mapping Genomes
17.3 Whole-Genome Sequencing
17.4 Applying Genomics
17.5 Genomics and Proteomics
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 18 Evolution and the Origin of Species
Introduction
Chapter Outline
18.1 Understanding Evolution
Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
Career Connection
Field Biologist
Processes and Patterns of Evolution
Evidence of Evolution
Fossils
Anatomy and Embryology
Link to Learning
Biogeography
Molecular Biology
Misconceptions of Evolution
Link to Learning
Evolution Is Just a Theory
Individuals Evolve
Evolution Explains the Origin of Life
Organisms Evolve on Purpose
18.2 Formation of New Species
Species and the Ability to Reproduce
Speciation
Allopatric Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
Link to Learning
Sympatric Speciation
Visual Connection
Reproductive Isolation
Habitat Influence on Speciation
18.3 Reconnection and Speciation Rates
Reconnection
Visual Connection
Varying Rates of Speciation
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
18.1 Understanding Evolution
18.2 Formation of New Species
18.3 Reconnection and Speciation Rates
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 19 The Evolution of Populations
Introduction
Chapter Outline
19.1 Population Evolution
Everyday Connection
Evolution and Flu Vaccines
Population Genetics
Hardy-Weinberg Principle of Equilibrium
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
19.2 Population Genetics
Genetic Variance
Link to Learning
Genetic Drift
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Scientific Method Connection
Testing the Bottleneck Effect
Gene Flow
Mutation
Nonrandom Mating
Environmental Variance
19.3 Adaptive Evolution
Stabilizing Selection
Directional Selection
Link to Learning
Diversifying Selection
Visual Connection
Frequency-Dependent Selection
Sexual Selection
Link to Learning
No Perfect Organism
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
19.1 Population Evolution
19.2 Population Genetics
19.3 Adaptive Evolution
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 20 Phylogenies and the History of Life
Introduction
Chapter Outline
20.1 Organizing Life on Earth
Phylogenetic Trees
Limitations of Phylogenetic Trees
Link to Learning
Classification Levels
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships
Two Options for Similarities
Misleading Appearances
Link to Learning
Molecular Comparisons
Evolution Connection
Why Does Phylogeny Matter?
Building Phylogenetic Trees
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
Shared Characteristics
Choosing the Right Relationships
Link to Learning
20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
Limitations to the Classic Model
Horizontal Gene Transfer
HGT in Prokaryotes
HGT in Eukaryotes
Genome Fusion and Eukaryote Evolution
Web and Network Models
Ring of Life Models
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
20.1 Organizing Life on Earth
20.2 Determining Evolutionary Relationships
20.3 Perspectives on the Phylogenetic Tree
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 21 Viruses
Introduction
Chapter Outline
21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification
Discovery and Detection
Evolution of Viruses
Viral Morphology
Morphology
Visual Connection
Types of Nucleic Acid
The Challenge of Virus Classification
Past Systems of Classification
Baltimore Classification
21.2 Virus Infections and Hosts
Steps of Virus Infections
Attachment
Link to Learning
Entry
Replication and Assembly
Egress
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Different Hosts and Their Viruses
Bacteriophages
Visual Connection
Plant Viruses
Animal Viruses
Link to Learning
21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
Vaccines for Prevention
Link to Learning
Vaccines and Antiviral Drugs for Treatment
Everyday Connection
Applied Virology:
21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids
Prions
Viroids
Career Connection
Virologist
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
21.1 Viral Evolution, Morphology, and Classification
21.2 Virus Infections and Hosts
21.3 Prevention and Treatment of Viral Infections
21.4 Other Acellular Entities: Prions and Viroids
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 22 Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
Introduction
Chapter Outline
22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity
Prokaryotes, the First Inhabitants of Earth
Microbial Mats
Stromatolites
The Ancient Atmosphere
Microbes Are Adaptable: Life in Moderate and Extreme Environments
Prokaryotes in the Dead Sea
Unculturable Prokaryotes and the Viable-but-Non-Culturable State
The Ecology of Biofilms
Visual Connection
22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
The Prokaryotic Cell
The Plasma Membrane of Prokaryotes
The Cell Wall of Prokaryotes
Visual Connection
Reproduction
Evolution Connection
The Evolution of Prokaryotes
22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism
Needs of Prokaryotes
Macronutrients
Micronutrients
The Ways in Which Prokaryotes Obtain Energy
The Ways in Which Prokaryotes Obtain Carbon
Role of Prokaryotes in Ecosystems
Prokaryotes and the Carbon Cycle
Prokaryotes and the Nitrogen Cycle
Visual Connection
22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans
Long History of Bacterial Disease
The Plague of Athens
Bubonic Plagues
Link to Learning
Migration of Diseases to New Populations
Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases
Foodborne Diseases
Biofilms and Disease
Antibiotics: Are We Facing a Crisis?
Link to Learning
One of the Superbugs: MRSA
Career Connection
Epidemiologist
22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes
Cooperation between Bacteria and Eukaryotes: Nitrogen Fixation
Everyday Connection
Microbes on the Human Body
Early Biotechnology: Cheese, Bread, Wine, Beer, and Yogurt
Using Prokaryotes to Clean up Our Planet: Bioremediation
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
22.1 Prokaryotic Diversity
22.2 Structure of Prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archaea
22.3 Prokaryotic Metabolism
22.4 Bacterial Diseases in Humans
22.5 Beneficial Prokaryotes
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 23 Protists
Introduction
Chapter Outline
23.1 Eukaryotic Origins
Characteristics of Eukaryotes
Endosymbiosis and the Evolution of Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic Metabolism
Endosymbiotic Theory
Mitochondria
Plastids
Visual Connection
Evolution Connection
Secondary Endosymbiosis in Chlorarachniophytes
23.2 Characteristics of Protists
Cell Structure
Metabolism
Motility
Life Cycles
Habitats
23.3 Groups of Protists
Archaeplastida
Glaucophytes
Red Algae
Green Algae: Chlorophytes and Charophytes
Link to Learning
Amoebozoa
Gymnomoebae
Slime Molds
Link to Learning
Opisthokonta
Rhizaria
Foraminiferans
Radiolarians
Cercozoa
Chromalveolata
Alveolates: Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexians, and Ciliates
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
Stramenopiles: Diatoms, Brown Algae, Golden Algae and Oomycetes
Visual Connection
Excavata
Diplomonads
Parabasalids
Link to Learning
Euglenozoans
Link to Learning
23.4 Ecology of Protists
Primary Producers/Food Sources
Human Pathogens
Plasmodium Species
Link to Learning
Trypanosomes
Link to Learning
Plant Parasites
Protist Decomposers
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
23.1 Eukaryotic Origins
23.2 Characteristics of Protists
23.3 Groups of Protists
23.4 Ecology of Protists
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 24 Fungi
Introduction
Chapter Outline
24.1 Characteristics of Fungi
Career Connection
Mycologist
Cell Structure and Function
Growth
Nutrition
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Link to Learning
24.2 Classifications of Fungi
Chytridiomycota: The Chytrids
Zygomycota: The Conjugated Fungi
Ascomycota: The Sac Fungi
Visual Connection
Basidiomycota: The Club Fungi
Visual Connection
Asexual Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
Glomeromycota
24.3 Ecology of Fungi
Habitats
Decomposers and Recyclers
Mutualistic Relationships
Fungus/Plant Mutualism
Visual Connection
Evolution Connection
Coevolution of Land Plants and Mycorrhizae
Lichens
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Fungus/Animal Mutualism
Fungivores
24.4 Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
Plant Parasites and Pathogens
Animal and Human Parasites and Pathogens
Scientific Method Connection
Dutch Elm Disease
24.5 Importance of Fungi in Human Life
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
24.1 Characteristics of Fungi
24.2 Classifications of Fungi
24.3 Ecology of Fungi
24.4 Fungal Parasites and Pathogens
24.5 Importance of Fungi in Human Life
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 25 Seedless Plants
Introduction
Chapter Outline
25.1 Early Plant Life
Evolution Connection
Algae and Evolutionary Paths to Photosynthesis
Link to Learning
Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
Alternation of Generations
Sporangia in Seedless Plants
Gametangia in Seedless Plants
Apical Meristems
Additional Land Plant Adaptations
Evolution of Land Plants
Career Connection
Paleobotanist
The Major Divisions of Land Plants
Visual Connection
25.2 Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants
Streptophytes
Reproduction of Green Algae
Charophytes
25.3 Bryophytes
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
Visual Connection
25.4 Seedless Vascular Plants
Vascular Tissue: Xylem and Phloem
Roots: Support for the Plant
Leaves, Sporophylls, and Strobili
Ferns and Other Seedless Vascular Plants
Phylum Lycopodiophyta: Club Mosses
Phylum Monilophyta: Class Equisetopsida (Horsetails)
Phylum Monilophyta: Class Psilotopsida (Whisk Ferns)
Phylum Monilophyta: Class Polypodiopsida (True Ferns)
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Landscape Designer
The Importance of Seedless Plants
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
25.1 Early Plant Life
25.2 Green Algae: Precursors of Land Plants
25.3 Bryophytes
25.4 Seedless Vascular Plants
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 26 Seed Plants
Introduction
Chapter Outline
26.1 Evolution of Seed Plants
Evolution of Gymnosperms
Seeds and Pollen as an Evolutionary Adaptation to Dry Land
Evolution of Angiosperms
Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation
Evolution Connection
Building Phylogenetic Trees with Analysis of DNA Sequence Alignments
26.2 Gymnosperms
Life Cycle of a Conifer
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Diversity of Gymnosperms
Conifers (Coniferophyta)
Cycads
Ginkgophytes
Gnetophytes
Link to Learning
26.3 Angiosperms
Flowers
The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
Visual Connection
Fruit
Diversity of Angiosperms
Basal Angiosperms
Monocots
Eudicots
26.4 The Role of Seed Plants
Animals and Plants: Herbivory
Animals and Plants: Pollination
Link to Learning
Scientific Method Connection
Testing Attraction of Flies by Rotting Flesh Smell
The Importance of Seed Plants in Human Life
Career Connection
Ethnobotanist
Biodiversity of Plants
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
26.1 Evolution of Seed Plants
26.2 Gymnosperms
26.3 Angiosperms
26.4 The Role of Seed Plants
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 27 Introduction to Animal Diversity
Introduction
Chapter Outline
27.1 Features of the Animal Kingdom
Complex Tissue Structure
Link to Learning
Animal Reproduction and Development
Processes of Animal Reproduction and Embryonic Development
Link to Learning
The Role of Homeobox (Hox) Genes in Animal Development
Visual Connection
27.2 Features Used to Classify Animals
Visual Connection
Animal Characterization Based on Body Symmetry
Link to Learning
Animal Characterization Based on Features of Embryological Development
Visual Connection
Presence or Absence of a Coelom
Embryonic Development of the Mouth
Evolution Connection
The Evolution of the Coelom
27.3 Animal Phylogeny
Constructing an Animal Phylogenetic Tree
Link to Learning
Modern Advances in Phylogenetic Understanding Come from Molecular Analyses
Link to Learning
27.4 The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom
Pre-Cambrian Animal Life
The Cambrian Explosion of Animal Life
Link to Learning
Post-Cambrian Evolution and Mass Extinctions
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Paleontologist
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
27.1 Features of the Animal Kingdom
27.2 Features Used to Classify Animals
27.3 Animal Phylogeny
27.4 The Evolutionary History of the Animal Kingdom
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 28 Invertebrates
Introduction
Chapter Outline
28.1 Phylum Porifera
Morphology of Sponges
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Physiological Processes in Sponges
Digestion
Reproduction
Locomotion
Link to Learning
28.2 Phylum Cnidaria
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Class Anthozoa
Class Scyphozoa
Class Cubozoa
Class Hydrozoa
28.3 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Flatworms, Rotifers, and Nemerteans
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Physiological Processes of Flatworms
Diversity of Flatworms
Phylum Rotifera
Link to Learning
Phylum Nemertea
Morphology
Link to Learning
Digestive System
Nervous System
Reproduction
28.4 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Molluscs and Annelids
Phylum Mollusca
Visual Connection
Classification of Phylum Mollusca
Link to Learning
Everyday Connection
Can Snail Venom Be Used as a Pharmacological Painkiller?
Phylum Annelida
Morphology
Anatomy
Link to Learning
Classification of Phylum Annelida
28.5 Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Nematodes and Tardigrades
Superphylum Ecdysozoa
Phylum Nematoda
Morphology
Excretory System
Nervous system
Reproduction
Everyday Connection
C. elegans: The Model System for Linking Developmental Studies with Genetics
Parasitic Nematodes
Phylum Tardigrada
Morphology and Physiology
Reproduction
28.6 Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Arthropods
Phylum Arthropoda
Morphology
Subphylum Chelicerata
Link to Learning
Subphylum Myriapoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Subphylum Hexapoda
Visual Connection
28.7 Superphylum Deuterostomia
Phylum Echinodermata
Morphology and Anatomy
Water Vascular and Hemal Systems
Nervous System
Digestive and Excretory Systems
Reproduction
Classes of Echinoderms
Link to Learning
Phylum Chordata
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
28.1 Phylum Porifera
28.2 Phylum Cnidaria
28.3 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Flatworms, Rotifers, and Nemerteans
28.4 Superphylum Lophotrochozoa: Molluscs and Annelids
28.5 Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Nematodes and Tardigrades
28.6 Superphylum Ecdysozoa: Arthropods
28.7 Superphylum Deuterostomia
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 29 Vertebrates
Introduction
Chapter Outline
29.1 Chordates
Characteristics of Chordata
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Chordates and the Evolution of Vertebrates
Cephalochordata
Urochordata
Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata)
29.2 Fishes
Jawless Fishes: Superclass Agnatha
Class Myxini: Hagfishes
Class Petromyzontida: Lampreys
Gnathostomes: Jawed Fishes
Class Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous Fishes
Osteichthyes: Bony Fishes
29.3 Amphibians
Link to Learning
Characteristics of Amphibians
Evolution of Amphibians
Modern Amphibians
Urodela: Salamanders
Link to Learning
Anura: Frogs
Apoda: Caecilians
Evolution Connection
The Paleozoic Era and the Evolution of Vertebrates
Link to Learning
29.4 Reptiles
Characteristics of Amniotes
Visual Connection
Evolution of Amniotes
Visual Connection
Characteristics of Reptiles
Evolution of Reptiles
Archosaurs: Dinosaurs
Archosaurs: Pterosaurs
Link to Learning
Modern Reptiles
Crocodilia
Sphenodontia
Squamata
Testudines
29.5 Birds
Characteristics of Birds
Evolution of Birds
The Evolution of Flight in Birds
Career Connection
Veterinarian
29.6 Mammals
Characteristics of Mammals
Evolution of Mammals
Living Mammals
29.7 The Evolution of Primates
Characteristics of Primates
Evolution of Primates
Human Evolution
Very Early Hominins
Early Hominins: Genus Australopithecus
A Dead End: Genus Paranthropus
Early Hominins: Genus Homo
Link to Learning
Humans: Homo sapiens
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
29.1 Chordates
29.2 Fishes
29.3 Amphibians
29.4 Reptiles
29.5 Birds
29.6 Mammals
29.7 The Evolution of Primates
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 30 Plant Form and Physiology
Introduction
Chapter Outline
30.1 The Plant Body
Link to Learning
Plant Organ Systems
Plant Tissues
30.2 Stems
Stem Anatomy
Visual Connection
Dermal Tissue
Vascular Tissue
Ground Tissue
Growth in Stems
Primary Growth
Link to Learning
Secondary Growth
Annual Rings
Stem Modifications
Link to Learning
30.3 Roots
Types of Root Systems
Root Growth and Anatomy
Root Modifications
30.4 Leaves
Structure of a Typical Leaf
Leaf Arrangement
Leaf Form
Leaf Structure and Function
Leaf Adaptations
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Plant Adaptations in Resource-Deficient Environments
Link to Learning
30.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
Water Potential
Solute Potential
Visual Connection
Pressure Potential
Gravity Potential
Matric Potential
Movement of Water and Minerals in the Xylem
Visual Connection
Control of Transpiration
Transportation of Photosynthates in the Phloem
Translocation: Transport from Source to Sink
30.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
Plant Responses to Light
The Phytochrome System and the Red/Far-Red Response
Career Connection
Horticulturalist
The Blue Light Responses
Link to Learning
Plant Responses to Gravity
Growth Responses
Auxins
Cytokinins
Gibberellins
Abscisic Acid
Ethylene
Nontraditional Hormones
Plant Responses to Wind and Touch
Link to Learning
Defense Responses against Herbivores and Pathogens
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
30.1 The Plant Body
30.2 Stems
30.3 Roots
30.4 Leaves
30.5 Transport of Water and Solutes in Plants
30.6 Plant Sensory Systems and Responses
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 31 Soil and Plant Nutrition
Introduction
Chapter Outline
31.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants
The Chemical Composition of Plants
Essential Nutrients
Macronutrients and Micronutrients
Link to Learning
Everyday Connection
Hydroponics
31.2 The Soil
Soil Composition
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Soil Formation
Parent Material
Climate
Topography
Biological factors
Time
Physical Properties of the Soil
Visual Connection
Career Connection
Soil Scientist
31.3 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
Link to Learning
Nitrogen Fixation: Root and Bacteria Interactions
Visual Connection
Mycorrhizae: The Symbiotic Relationship between Fungi and Roots
Nutrients from Other Sources
Plant Parasites
Saprophytes
Symbionts
Epiphytes
Insectivorous Plants
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
31.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants
31.2 The Soil
31.3 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 32 Plant Reproduction
Introduction
Chapter Outline
32.1 Reproductive Development and Structure
Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms
Flower Structure
Visual Connection
Male Gametophyte (The Pollen Grain)
Female Gametophyte (The Embryo Sac)
Visual Connection
Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Male Gametophyte
Link to Learning
Female Gametophyte
Reproductive Process
Angiosperms versus Gymnosperms
Link to Learning
32.2 Pollination and Fertilization
Link to Learning
Everyday Connection
Incompatibility Genes in Flowers
Pollination by Insects
Pollination by Bats
Pollination by Birds
Pollination by Wind
Pollination by Water
Evolution Connection
Pollination by Deception
Double Fertilization
Development of the Seed
Visual Connection
Seed Germination
Development of Fruit and Fruit Types
Fruit and Seed Dispersal
32.3 Asexual Reproduction
Natural Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Artificial Methods of Asexual Reproduction
Grafting
Cutting
Layering
Micropropagation
Plant Life Spans
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
32.1 Reproductive Development and Structure
32.2 Pollination and Fertilization
32.3 Asexual Reproduction
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 33 The Animal Body: Basic Form and Function
Introduction
Chapter Outline
33.1 Animal Form and Function
Body Plans
Limits on Animal Size and Shape
Limiting Effects of Diffusion on Size and Development
Link to Learning
Animal Bioenergetics
Energy Requirements Related to Body Size
Energy Requirements Related to Levels of Activity
Energy Requirements Related to Environment
Animal Body Planes and Cavities
Career Connection
Physical Anthropologist
33.2 Animal Primary Tissues
Epithelial Tissues
Squamous Epithelia
Cuboidal Epithelia
Columnar Epithelia
Transitional Epithelia
Visual Connection
Connective Tissues
Loose/Areolar Connective Tissue
Fibrous Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Bone
Adipose Tissue
Blood
Muscle Tissues
Smooth Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Nervous Tissues
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Pathologist
33.3 Homeostasis
Homeostatic Process
Control of Homeostasis
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Positive Feedback Loop
Visual Connection
Set Point
Link to Learning
Homeostasis: Thermoregulation
Link to Learning
Endotherms and Ectotherms
Heat Conservation and Dissipation
Neural Control of Thermoregulation
Visual Connection
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
33.1 Animal Form and Function
33.2 Animal Primary Tissues
33.3 Homeostasis
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 34 Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
34.1 Digestive Systems
Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores
Invertebrate Digestive Systems
Vertebrate Digestive Systems
Monogastric: Single-chambered Stomach
Avian
Evolution Connection
Avian Adaptations
Ruminants
Pseudo-ruminants
Parts of the Digestive System
Oral Cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Visual Connection
Small Intestine
Visual Connection
Large Intestine
Rectum and Anus
Accessory Organs
34.2 Nutrition and Energy Production
Food Requirements
Link to Learning
Everyday Connection
Let’s Move! Campaign
Organic Precursors
Essential Nutrients
Food Energy and ATP
Everyday Connection
Obesity
34.3 Digestive System Processes
Ingestion
Digestion and Absorption
Carbohydrates
Protein
Lipids
Vitamins
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
Elimination
Common Problems with Elimination
Emesis
34.4 Digestive System Regulation
Neural Responses to Food
Digestive Phases
Hormonal Responses to Food
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
34.1 Digestive Systems
34.2 Nutrition and Energy Production
34.3 Digestive System Processes
34.4 Digestive System Regulation
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 35 The Nervous System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
35.1 Neurons and Glial Cells
Link to Learning
Neurons
Parts of a Neuron
Visual Connection
Types of Neurons
Everyday Connection
Neurogenesis
Link to Learning
Glia
Types of Glia
35.2 How Neurons Communicate
Nerve Impulse Transmission within a Neuron
Neuronal Charged Membranes
Link to Learning
Resting Membrane Potential
Action Potential
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Myelin and the Propagation of the Action Potential
Synaptic Transmission
Chemical Synapse
Electrical Synapse
Signal Summation
Everyday Connection
Brain-computer interface
Link to Learning
Synaptic Plasticity
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
Long-term Depression (LTD)
35.3 The Central Nervous System
Brain
Cerebral Cortex
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Cerebral Cortex
Basal Ganglia
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Limbic System
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Spinal Cord
35.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
Visual Connection
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Sensory-Somatic Nervous System
35.5 Nervous System Disorders
Neurodegenerative Disorders
Alzheimer’s Disease
Link to Learning
Parkinson’s Disease
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Autism
Link to Learning
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Career Connection
Neurologist
Link to Learning
Mental Illnesses
Schizophrenia
Depression
Other Neurological Disorders
Epilepsy
Stroke
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
35.1 Neurons and Glial Cells
35.2 How Neurons Communicate
35.3 The Central Nervous System
35.4 The Peripheral Nervous System
35.5 Nervous System Disorders
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 36 Sensory Systems
Introduction
Chapter Outline
36.1 Sensory Processes
Reception
Transduction
Encoding and Transmission of Sensory Information
Perception
Scientific Method Connection
Just-Noticeable Difference
36.2 Somatosensation
Somatosensory Receptors
Visual Connection
Integration of Signals from Mechanoreceptors
Density of Mechanoreceptors
Thermoreception
Pain
Link to Learning
36.3 Taste and Smell
Tastes and Odors
Reception and Transduction
Evolution Connection
Pheromones
Taste
Link to Learning
Smell and Taste in the Brain
36.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
Sound
Reception of Sound
Transduction of Sound
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Higher Processing
Vestibular Information
Higher Processing
Link to Learning
36.5 Vision
Light
Anatomy of the Eye
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Transduction of Light
Trichromatic Coding
Retinal Processing
Higher Processing
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
36.1 Sensory Processes
36.2 Somatosensation
36.3 Taste and Smell
36.4 Hearing and Vestibular Sensation
36.5 Vision
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 37 The Endocrine System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
37.1 Types of Hormones
Lipid-Derived Hormones (or Lipid-soluble Hormones)
Amino Acid-Derived Hormones
Peptide Hormones
Career Connection
Endocrinologist
37.2 How Hormones Work
Intracellular Hormone Receptors
Visual Connection
Plasma Membrane Hormone Receptors
37.3 Regulation of Body Processes
Hormonal Regulation of the Excretory System
Hormonal Regulation of the Reproductive System
Regulation of the Male Reproductive System
Everyday Connection
The Dangers of Synthetic Hormones
Regulation of the Female Reproductive System
Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism
Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels by Insulin and Glucagon
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels by Thyroid Hormones
Hormonal Control of Blood Calcium Levels
Hormonal Regulation of Growth
Hormonal Regulation of Stress
Evolution Connection
Fight-or-Flight Response
Short-term Stress Response
Link to Learning
Long-term Stress Response
37.4 Regulation of Hormone Production
Visual Connection
Humoral Stimuli
Hormonal Stimuli
Neural Stimuli
37.5 Endocrine Glands
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
Anterior Pituitary
Posterior Pituitary
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Glands
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal Medulla
Pancreas
Pineal Gland
Gonads
Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
37.1 Types of Hormones
37.2 How Hormones Work
37.3 Regulation of Body Processes
37.4 Regulation of Hormone Production
37.5 Endocrine Glands
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 38 The Musculoskeletal System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
38.1 Types of Skeletal Systems
Hydrostatic Skeleton
Exoskeleton
Endoskeleton
Link to Learning
Human Axial Skeleton
The Skull
The Vertebral Column
The Thoracic Cage
Human Appendicular Skeleton
The Pectoral Girdle
The Upper Limb
The Pelvic Girdle
The Lower Limb
Evolution Connection
Evolution of Body Design for Locomotion on Land
38.2 Bone
Bone Tissue
Compact Bone Tissue
Visual Connection
Spongy Bone Tissue
Link to Learning
Cell Types in Bones
Development of Bone
Intramembranous Ossification
Endochondral Ossification
Growth of Bone
Lengthening of Long Bones
Thickening of Long Bones
Bone Remodeling and Repair
Scientific Method Connection
Decalcification of Bones
38.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement
Classification of Joints on the Basis of Structure
Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
Classification of Joints on the Basis of Function
Movement at Synovial Joints
Gliding Movement
Angular Movement
Rotational Movement
Special Movements
Types of Synovial Joints
Planar Joints
Hinge Joints
Pivot Joints
Condyloid Joints
Saddle Joints
Ball-and-Socket Joints
Link to Learning
Career Connection
Rheumatologist
38.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure
Link to Learning
Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
ATP and Muscle Contraction
Link to Learning
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Regulatory Proteins
Excitation–Contraction Coupling
Visual Connection
Control of Muscle Tension
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
38.1 Types of Skeletal Systems
38.2 Bone
38.3 Joints and Skeletal Movement
38.4 Muscle Contraction and Locomotion
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 39 The Respiratory System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
39.1 Systems of Gas Exchange
Direct Diffusion
Skin and Gills
Tracheal Systems
Mammalian Systems
Visual Connection
Lungs: Bronchi and Alveoli
Link to Learning
Protective Mechanisms
39.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
Basic Principles of Gas Exchange
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Career Connection
Respiratory Therapist
Gas Pressure and Respiration
Gas Exchange across the Alveoli
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
39.3 Breathing
Types of Breathing
Evolution Connection
Avian Respiration
The Mechanics of Human Breathing
Link to Learning
The Work of Breathing
Surfactant
Lung Resistance and Compliance
Dead Space: V/Q Mismatch
Link to Learning
39.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
Transport of Oxygen in the Blood
Hemoglobin
Visual Connection
Factors That Affect Oxygen Binding
Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
39.1 Systems of Gas Exchange
39.2 Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces
39.3 Breathing
39.4 Transport of Gases in Human Bodily Fluids
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 40 The Circulatory System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
40.1 Overview of the Circulatory System
Circulatory System Architecture
Circulatory System Variation in Animals
40.2 Components of the Blood
The Role of Blood in the Body
Red Blood Cells
White Blood Cells
Platelets and Coagulation Factors
Plasma and Serum
Evolution Connection
Blood Types Related to Proteins on the Surface of the Red Blood Cells
Link to Learning
40.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
Visual Connection
Structure of the Heart
Visual Connection
The Cardiac Cycle
Link to Learning
Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
40.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
How Blood Flows Through the Body
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Vertebrate Diversity in Blood Circulation
Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure Regulation
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
40.1 Overview of the Circulatory System
40.2 Components of the Blood
40.3 Mammalian Heart and Blood Vessels
40.4 Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Regulation
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 41 Osmotic Regulation and Excretion
Introduction
Chapter Outline
41.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance
Need for Osmoregulation
Transport of Electrolytes across Cell Membranes
Concept of Osmolality and Milliequivalent
Osmoregulators and Osmoconformers
Career Connection
Dialysis Technician
41.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
Kidneys: The Main Osmoregulatory Organ
Kidney Structure
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
Renal Corpuscle
Renal Tubule
Capillary Network within the Nephron
Link to Learning
Kidney Function and Physiology
Glomerular Filtration
Link to Learning
Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
Visual Connection
Career Connection
Nephrologist
41.3 Excretion Systems
Contractile Vacuoles in Microorganisms
Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms
Malpighian Tubules of Insects
Link to Learning
41.4 Nitrogenous Wastes
Nitrogenous Waste in Terrestrial Animals: The Urea Cycle
Evolution Connection
Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste
Nitrogenous Waste in Birds and Reptiles: Uric Acid
Everyday Connection
Gout
41.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Mineralocorticoids
Antidiuretic Hormone
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Hormone
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
41.1 Osmoregulation and Osmotic Balance
41.2 The Kidneys and Osmoregulatory Organs
41.3 Excretion Systems
41.4 Nitrogenous Wastes
41.5 Hormonal Control of Osmoregulatory Functions
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 42 The Immune System
Introduction
Chapter Outline
42.1 Innate Immune Response
Physical and Chemical Barriers
Pathogen Recognition
Cytokine Release Effect
Phagocytosis and Inflammation
Link to Learning
Natural Killer Cells
Complement
42.2 Adaptive Immune Response
Antigen-presenting Cells
Link to Learning
T and B Lymphocytes
Visual Connection
Helper T Lymphocytes
B Lymphocytes
Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes
Visual Connection
Mucosal Surfaces and Immune Tolerance
Immunological Memory
Visual Connection
Mucosal Immune Memory
Career Connection
Vaccinologist
Primary Centers of the Immune System
42.3 Antibodies
Antibody Structure
Antibody Classes
Antibody Functions
Affinity, Avidity, and Cross Reactivity
Antibodies of the Mucosal Immune System
42.4 Disruptions in the Immune System
Immunodeficiency
Hypersensitivities
Allergies
Autoimmunity
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
42.1 Innate Immune Response
42.2 Adaptive Immune Response
42.3 Antibodies
42.4 Disruptions in the Immune System
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 43 Animal Reproduction and Development
Introduction
Chapter Outline
43.1 Reproduction Methods
Asexual Reproduction
Fission
Budding
Link to Learning
Fragmentation
Parthenogenesis
Sexual Reproduction
Hermaphroditism
Sex Determination
43.2 Fertilization
External Fertilization
Internal Fertilization
The Evolution of Reproduction
43.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
Human Reproductive Anatomy
Male Reproductive Anatomy
Visual Connection
Female Reproductive Anatomy
Sexual Response during Intercourse
Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)
Spermatogenesis
Link to Learning
Oogenesis
43.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
Male Hormones
Female Hormones
The Ovarian Cycle and the Menstrual Cycle
Visual Connection
Visual Connection
Menopause
Career Connection
Reproductive Endocrinologist
43.5 Human Pregnancy and Birth
Human Gestation
Link to Learning
Labor and Birth
Contraception and Birth Control
Infertility
43.6 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
Fertilization
Cleavage and Blastula Stage
Link to Learning
Gastrulation
Everyday Connection
Are Designer Babies in Our Future?
43.7 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
Organogenesis
Vertebrate Axis Formation
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
43.1 Reproduction Methods
43.2 Fertilization
43.3 Human Reproductive Anatomy and Gametogenesis
43.4 Hormonal Control of Human Reproduction
43.5 Human Pregnancy and Birth
43.6 Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development
43.7 Organogenesis and Vertebrate Formation
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 44 Ecology and the Biosphere
Introduction
Chapter Outline
44.1 The Scope of Ecology
Link to Learning
Levels of Ecological Study
Organismal Ecology
Population Ecology
Community Ecology
Ecosystem Ecology
Career Connection
Ecologist
Link to Learning
44.2 Biogeography
Biogeography
Link to Learning
Energy Sources
Visual Connection
Temperature
Water
Inorganic Nutrients and Soil
Other Aquatic Factors
Other Terrestrial Factors
Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth
44.3 Terrestrial Biomes
Visual Connection
Tropical Wet Forest
Savannas
Subtropical Deserts
Chaparral
Temperate Grasslands
Temperate Forests
Boreal Forests
Arctic Tundra
Link to Learning
44.4 Aquatic Biomes
Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes
Visual Connection
Marine Biomes
Ocean
Coral Reefs
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Global Decline of Coral Reefs
Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water
Freshwater Biomes
Lakes and Ponds
Rivers and Streams
Wetlands
44.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
Climate and Weather
Global Climate Change
Evidence for Global Climate Change
Current and Past Drivers of Global Climate Change
Documented Results of Climate Change: Past and Present
Geological Climate Change
Link to Learning
Present Climate Change
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
44.1 The Scope of Ecology
44.2 Biogeography
44.3 Terrestrial Biomes
44.4 Aquatic Biomes
44.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 45 Population and Community Ecology
Introduction
Chapter Outline
45.1 Population Demography
Population Size and Density
Visual Connection
Population Research Methods
Species Distribution
Demography
Life Tables
Survivorship Curves
45.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection
Life History Patterns and Energy Budgets
Parental Care and Fecundity
Early versus Late Reproduction
Single versus Multiple Reproductive Events
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Energy Budgets, Reproductive Costs, and Sexual Selection in Drosophila
45.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth
Exponential Growth
Logistic Growth
Carrying Capacity and the Logistic Model
Role of Intraspecific Competition
Examples of Logistic Growth
Visual Connection
45.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation
Density-Dependent Regulation
Density-Independent Regulation and Interaction with Density-Dependent Factors
Evolution Connection
Why Did the Woolly Mammoth Go Extinct?
Life Histories of K-selected and r-selected Species
Modern Theories of Life History
45.5 Human Population Growth
Link to Learning
Overcoming Density-Dependent Regulation
Age Structure, Population Growth, and Economic Development
Visual Connection
Long-Term Consequences of Exponential Human Population Growth
Link to Learning
45.6 Community Ecology
Predation and Herbivory
Defense Mechanisms against Predation and Herbivory
Link to Learning
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Symbiosis
Commensalism
Mutualism
Parasitism
Characteristics of Communities
Foundation Species
Biodiversity, Species Richness, and Relative Species Abundance
Keystone Species
Everyday Connection
Invasive Species
Community Dynamics
Primary Succession and Pioneer Species
Secondary succession
45.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
Innate Behaviors: Movement and Migration
Kinesis and Taxis
Fixed Action Patterns
Migration
Foraging
Innate Behaviors: Living in Groups
Communication within a Species
Link to Learning
Altruistic Behaviors
Finding Sex Partners
Link to Learning
Simple Learned Behaviors
Habituation
Imprinting
Link to Learning
Conditioned Behavior
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Learning
Sociobiology
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
45.1 Population Demography
45.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection
45.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth
45.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation
45.5 Human Population Growth
45.6 Community Ecology
45.7 Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 46 Ecosystems
Introduction
Chapter Outline
46.1 Ecology of Ecosystems
Food Chains and Food Webs
Link to Learning
Evolution Connection
Three-spined Stickleback
Research into Ecosystem Dynamics: Ecosystem Experimentation and Modeling
Conceptual Models
Visual Connection
Analytical and Simulation Models
Link to Learning
46.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems
How Organisms Acquire Energy in a Food Web
Productivity within Trophic Levels
Ecological Efficiency: The Transfer of Energy between Trophic Levels
Modeling Ecosystems Energy Flow: Ecological Pyramids
Visual Connection
Consequences of Food Webs: Biological Magnification
46.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
Link to Learning
The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle
Link to Learning
The Carbon Cycle
Link to Learning
The Biological Carbon Cycle
The Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
Visual Connection
The Phosphorus Cycle
Everyday Connection
Chesapeake Bay
The Sulfur Cycle
Link to Learning
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
46.1 Ecology of Ecosystems
46.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems
46.3 Biogeochemical Cycles
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Chapter 47 Conservation Biology and Biodiversity
Introduction
Chapter Outline
47.1 The Biodiversity Crisis
Types of Biodiversity
Current Species Diversity
Patterns of Biodiversity
Career Connection
Biogeographer
Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity Change through Geological Time
The Five Mass Extinctions
Visual Connection
Link to Learning
The Pleistocene Extinction
Recent Extinctions
Estimates of Present-Time Extinction Rates
Link to Learning
47.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
Human Health
Agricultural Diversity
Visual Connection
Wild Food Sources
Link to Learning
Psychological and Moral Value
47.3 Threats to Biodiversity
Habitat Loss
Everyday Connection
Preventing Habitat Destruction with Wise Wood Choices
Overharvesting
Link to Learning
Link to Learning
Exotic Species
Link to Learning
Climate Change
47.4 Preserving Biodiversity
Measuring Biodiversity
Visual Connection
Changing Human Behavior
Conservation in Preserves
How Much Area to Preserve?
Preserve Design
Limitations on Preserves
Link to Learning
Habitat Restoration
The Role of Captive Breeding
Key Terms
Chapter Summary
47.1 The Biodiversity Crisis
47.2 The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life
47.3 Threats to Biodiversity
47.4 Preserving Biodiversity
Visual Connection Questions
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Appendix A The Periodic Table of Elements
Appendix B Geological Time
Appendix C Measurements and the Metric System
Index
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