Biofuels and Bioenergy: A Techno-Economic Approach

Biofuels and Bioenergy
Copyright
Contents
Preface
List of contributors
1 Boundaries and openings of biorefineries towards sustainable biofuel production
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Biorefinery
1.2 Sources of biorefinery
1.2.1 Phase I biorefinery
1.2.2 Phase II biorefinery
1.2.3 Phase III biorefinery
1.3 Classification of biofuels based on biomass
1.3.1 First-generation fuels
1.3.2 Second-generation fuels
1.3.3 Third-generation fuels
1.3.4 Fourth-generation fuels
1.4 Production methods of biofuel
1.5 Pretreatments
1.5.1 Mechanical methods
1.5.2 Thermochemical methods
1.5.3 Chemical pretreatment
1.5.4 Biological pretreatment
1.6 Production of different biofuels
1.6.1 Bioelectricity generation
1.7 Production of ethanol and electricity
1.8 Production of ethanol, lactic acid, and electricity
1.9 Furfural, ethanol and electricity production
1.10 Coproduction of butanol and electricity
1.11 Production of methanol and electricity
1.12 Purification process
1.13 Biogas—biomethane production
1.14 Applications
1.15 Limitations of biorefineries
1.16 Future perspectives of biorefineries
1.17 Conclusion
References
2 A perspective on the biorefinery approaches for bioenergy production in a circular bioeconomy process
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bioenergy
2.2.1 Biorefinery
2.2.1.1 Classification of biorefineries
2.2.2 Valorization of biomass
2.3 Bioeconomy, circular economy, and green economy
2.3.1 Circular bioeconomy
2.3.2 Biorefinery and circular bioeconomics
2.3.2.1 Lignocellulosic biorefinery
2.3.2.2 Algal biomass
2.4 Limitations and future perspective of circular bioeconomy
2.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
3 A comprehensive integration of biorefinery concepts for the production of biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biomass for biorefinery
3.2.1 Algal biorefinery
3.2.2 Lignocellulosic biorefinery
3.2.2.1 Occurrence and composition of lignocellulosic biomass
3.2.2.1.1 Agricultural residues
3.2.2.1.2 Forest residues
3.2.2.1.3 Energy crops
3.3 Biofuels from lignocellulosic biomass
3.4 Strategies for the treatment of lignocellulosic biomass
3.4.1 Pretreatment
3.4.2 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
3.4.3 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
3.5 Metabolic engineering approaches for biofuel production
3.6 Integrated biorefinery
3.7 Constrains and challenges
3.8 Economic aspects and future of lignocellulosic biorefinery
3.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
4 Evaluation of activated sludge derived from wastewater treatment process as a potential biorefinery platform
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Activated sludge as a potential resource for fermentative products
4.2.1 Analytical techniques to characterize organic valuables in sludge fermentation
4.2.2 Organic molecules characterized in sludge fermentation
4.3 Activated sludge as refinery for biogases (methane and hydrogen)
4.3.1 Physicochemical parameters for activated sludge as biorefinery
4.3.2 Biogas yields obtained using sludge fermentation
4.3.3 Limitations of sludge bioprocessing and refinements
4.4 Activated sludge as a source of other organic by-products (fertilizer, refuse-derived fuel)
4.4.1 Reduced sludge for agricultural use
4.4.2 Other biorefinery perspectives for reduced sludge
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Insights into the impact of biorefineries and sustainable green technologies on circular bioeconomy
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Bioeconomy and circular economy collide in the circular bioeconomy
5.3 Impact of biorefinery processes on circular bioeconomy
5.4 Product usage strategies for circular bioeconomy
5.4.1 Biomimicry and waste biorefinery
5.4.2 Metabolic approach
5.4.3 Lignocellulosic biorefinery
5.4.4 Municipal waste biorefinery
5.5 Reusing bio-based high-value products
5.6 Effect of biomass utilization on circular bioeconomy
5.6.1 Cascading the use of biomass
5.6.2 Waste-to-energy technologies
5.7 Agriculture management for sustainable circular bioeconomy
5.8 Industrial and environmental policy for promoting circular bioeconomy
5.9 Conclusion
References
6 Fermentation technology for ethanol production: current trends and challenges
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lignocellulosic biomass
6.3 The electronic structure chemistry of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
6.4 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass
6.5 Fermentation technology
6.5.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
6.5.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
6.6 Ethanol production using native microbes
6.6.1 C5 sugar fermentative microbes
6.6.2 C6 sugar fermentative microbes
6.7 Fermentation technology for ethanol production using recombinant engineered microbes
6.7.1 Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
6.7.2 Zymomonas mobilis
6.7.3 Escherichia coli
6.8 Trends, challenges, and future prospects in the bioethanol production
6.8.1 Trends
6.8.2 Challenges and prospects
6.9 Conclusion
References
7 Improved enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic waste biomass: most essential stage to develop cost-effective second-gen...
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic feedstocks
7.2.1 Different modes of enzymatic saccharification and their technical aspects
7.3 Factors influences in efficient enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass
7.3.1 Ideal pretreatment of biomass
7.3.2 Utilization of potent enzymes, produced from waste biomasses and high-yield microbes
7.3.3 Reaction conditions influencing enzymatic hydrolysis process
7.4 Reusability of cellulase enzyme to develop cost-effective enzymatic saccharification process
7.5 Economic aspects and future prospective of enzymatic saccharification-based lignocellulosic biofuel production
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 Advances and sustainable conversion of waste lignocellulosic biomass into biofuels
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Biofuel: a sustainable fuel for future
8.3 Lignocellulose: a potential substrate for the biofuel product
8.4 Pretreatment methods for lignocellulose biomass
8.4.1 Physical methods
8.4.2 Mechanical pretreatment methods
8.4.3 Irradiation pretreatment method
8.4.4 Pyrolysis
8.4.5 Chemical methods
8.4.5.1 Pretreatment using acids
8.4.5.2 Alkaline pretreatment
8.4.5.3 Pretreatment using organosolvation methods
8.4.5.4 Oxidative pretreatment
8.4.6 Biological pretreatment methods
8.4.7 Microbial pretreatment method
8.5 Sources of lignocellulose biomass
8.5.1 Agricultural biomass
8.5.2 Forestry biomass
8.5.3 Industrial and municipal biomass
8.5.4 Wasteland biomass
8.6 Analysis
8.6.1 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy/X-ray
8.7 Potential microbial strains involved in biofuel productions
8.8 Fermentation methods for biofuel production
8.8.1 Separated hydrolysis and fermentation
8.8.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
8.9 Reactor configuration
8.10 Future perspectives
8.11 Challenges
8.12 Conclusion
References
9 Lignocellulosic biomass as an alternate source for next-generation biofuel
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Raw materials
9.2.1 Wheat
9.2.2 Corn
9.2.3 Sugarcane
9.2.4 Wood/straw dust
9.3 Lignocellulosic material
9.3.1 Composition of lignocellulosic feedstocks
9.3.1.1 Biomass from woody and herbaceous trees
9.3.1.2 Microalgae
9.4 Process for converting the lignocellulose to biofuels
9.4.1 Biological process
9.4.1.1 Pretreatment
9.4.1.1.1 Physical method
9.4.1.1.2 Chemical method
9.4.1.1.3 Biological method
9.4.1.2 Hydrolysis
9.4.1.3 Fermentation
9.4.2 Thermochemical process
9.5 Conclusion
References
10 Process intensification in biobutanol production
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biobutanol
10.2.1 Need of biobutanol
10.2.2 Characteristics of biobutanol
10.2.3 Applications of butanol
10.3 Production of biobutanol
10.3.1 Preface for biobutanol production
10.3.2 History of biobutanol production
10.3.3 Categories of biobutanol
10.3.4 Microorganism for biobutanol production
10.3.5 Challenges in biobutanol production
10.4 Process intensification
10.5 Process intensification in production of biobutanol
10.5.1 Bioreactors
10.5.1.1 Batch reactors
10.5.1.2 Stirred tank bio-reactor
10.5.1.3 Oscillatory baffled bioreactor
10.5.2 Continuous biofilm fixed bed reactor
10.5.2.1 Fibrous bed bioreactor
10.5.3 Membrane methods
10.5.3.1 Membrane bioreactor
10.5.3.2 Pervaporation
10.5.3.3 Pervaporation with ionic liquid supported membrane
10.5.3.4 Pervaporation with nano-composite membrane
10.5.3.5 Thermo-pervaporation
10.5.3.6 Thermo-pervaporation assisted by phase separation
10.5.3.7 Sweeping gas pervaporation
10.5.3.8 Reverse osmosis
10.5.3.9 Liquid membrane
10.5.3.10 Perstraction
10.5.3.11 Membrane distillation
10.5.4 Distillation methods
10.5.4.1 Distillation
10.5.4.2 Vacuum distillation
10.5.4.3 Flash fermentation
10.5.5 Fermentation with gas stripping
10.5.5.1 Batch fermentation with gas stripping
10.5.5.2 Fed batch fermentation with gas stripping
10.5.5.3 Continuous multifeed bioreactor with in situ gas stripping
10.5.5.4 Continuous immobilized cell fluidized bed reactor with gas stripping
10.5.5.5 Continuous acetone–butanol–ethanol fermentation with packed bed stripper
10.5.5.6 Trickle bed bioreactor with gas stripping
10.5.5.7 Fibrous bed bioreactor with two stage gas stripping
10.5.6 Liquid–liquid extraction methods
10.5.6.1 L–L extraction
10.5.6.2 Extractive fermentation
10.5.6.3 Use of ionic liquids
10.5.7 Adsorption methods
10.5.7.1 Adsorption
10.5.7.2 Biofilm reactor coupled with adsorption
10.5.8 Hybrid methods
10.5.8.1 Pervaporation–distillation
10.5.8.2 Vapor stripping–vapor permeation
10.5.8.3 Extraction–distillation
10.5.8.4 Adsorption–drying–desorption
10.5.8.5 Heat pump (vapor recompression)-assisted azeotropic dividing wall column
10.5.9 Other methods
10.5.9.1 Addition of reducing agent
10.5.9.2 Addition of supplementing agent
10.5.9.3 Addition of amino acids
10.5.9.4 Periodic reactor feeding
10.5.9.5 Ultrasound assisted fermentation
10.5.9.6 Nanotechnology
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Production of cellulosic butanol by clostridial fermentation: a superior alternative renewable liquid fuel
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Production of butanol by Clostridium sp
11.2.1 ABE fermentation
11.2.2 IBE fermentation
11.3 Factors affecting butanol production
11.4 Enhancement of ABE fermentation
11.4.1 Coculture of Clostridium sp
11.4.2 Metabolic engineering
11.5 Butanol production from LCB
11.5.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
11.5.2 Consolidated bioprocessing of LCB
11.6 Technoeconomic analysis
11.7 Conclusion
References
12 Biobutanol separation using ionic liquids as a green solvent
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Butanol
12.2.1 Background
12.2.2 Characteristics
12.2.3 Applications
12.2.4 Production
12.2.5 Separation
12.3 Liquid–liquid extraction and ionic liquids
12.3.1 Separation
12.3.2 Liquid–liquid extraction
12.3.3 Ionic liquids
12.4 Butanol separation by ionic liquids
12.4.1 Imidazolium-based ionic liquids
12.4.2 Phosphonium-based ionic liquids
12.4.3 Piperidinium-based ionic liquids
12.4.4 Pyrrolidinium-based ionic liquids
12.4.5 Morpholinium-based ionic liquids
12.4.6 Ammonium-based ionic liquids
12.4.7 Supported ionic liquid membrane
12.4.8 Perstraction using ionic liquids
12.5 Toxicity and biocompatibility of ionic liquids
12.5.1 Biocompatibility
12.5.2 Toxicity
12.6 Recovery and reuse of ionic liquids
12.7 Future perspectives
12.8 Conclusion
References
13 Synergistic prospects of microalgae after wastewater treatment to be used for biofuel production
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Appropriate selection methods for effective biofuel production
13.2.1 Potential microalgae for biofuel production through wastewater treatment
13.2.2 Selection of appropriate media for enhanced microalgal biomass and lipid yield
13.2.3 Selection of wastewater for microalgal growth
13.2.4 Selection of wastewater pretreatment
13.2.5 Free cell versus immobilized cell
13.2.5.1 Advantages of immobilization
13.3 Types of microalgae cultivation
13.3.1 High rate algal ponds
13.3.2 Photobioreactor
13.3.2.1 Tubular photobioreactor
13.3.2.2 Airlift column photobioreactor
13.3.2.3 Flat-plate photobioreactor
13.3.3 Hybrid system
13.3.4 Microalgae turf scrubber
13.4 Harvesting microalgal biomass
13.4.1 Chemical extraction
13.4.2 Mechanical extraction
13.4.3 Electrical extraction
13.4.4 Biological method of extraction
13.5 Biofuel production from wastewater using microalgae
13.5.1 Biodiesel
13.5.2 Bioethanol and biohydrogen
13.5.3 Syngas
13.5.3.1 Fischer–Tropsch
13.5.4 Biomethane
13.5.5 Jet fuel
13.6 Greenhouse gas mitigation
13.7 Future perspectives
13.8 Conclusion
References
14 Concurrent reduction of CO2 and generation of biofuels by electrified microbial systems—concepts and perspectives
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Electrode and possible effects on microbial electrosynthesis
14.1.2 Membrane configurations
14.2 Bacterial electrotrophs
14.3 Mechanism of electron uptake
14.3.1 Indirect extracellular electron transfer or mediator-dependent transfer
14.3.2 Direct extracellular electron transfer or mediator-free transfer
14.4 Carbon dioxide reduction and biofuels generation
14.5 Challenges and future prospects
14.6 Conclusion
References
15 Challenges and opportunities in large-scale production of biodiesel
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Assessment from small-scale to large-scale production
15.2.1 Supply chain and logistics
15.2.2 Storage of oil seed
15.3 Commercial-scale production of triglycerides
15.3.1 Source of triglycerides
15.3.2 Large scale oil production
15.3.2.1 Extraction of oil
15.3.2.2 Mechanical pressing
15.3.2.3 Solvent extraction method
15.3.3 Vegetable oil refining process
15.3.4 Degumming
15.3.4.1 Chemical methods
15.3.5 Deacidification process
15.3.5.1 Traditional alkali treatment methodology
15.3.5.2 Physical deacidification
15.3.6 Bleaching
15.3.7 Deodorization process
15.4 Large-scale production structure of biodiesel plant
15.4.1 Refining process for biodiesel production
15.4.2 Esterification process
15.4.3 Transesterification process
15.4.4 Pumps and pipelines used
15.4.5 Reactors used
15.4.5.1 Batch reactors
15.4.5.2 Continuous stirred tank reactors
15.4.5.3 Other reactors
15.4.5.3.1 Plug flow reactor
15.4.5.4 Microreactors
15.4.6 Product separation
15.4.7 Neutralization
15.4.8 Methanol recovery
15.4.9 Biodiesel purification
15.4.9.1 Water washing process
15.4.9.2 Dry washing
15.4.10 Biodiesel drying
15.4.11 Recovery of methanol
15.5 Glycerol purification
15.5.1 Free fatty acid treatment
15.6 Wastewater treatment
15.6.1 Generation of wastewater
15.6.2 Significance of wastewater treatment method
15.6.3 Physical methods
15.6.3.1 Adsorption
15.6.3.2 Acidification
15.6.3.3 Coagulation
15.6.4 Electrochemical method
15.6.4.1 Electrocoagulation
15.6.4.2 Hydrothermal electrolysis
15.6.5 Biological methods
15.7 Cost analysis of wastewater treatment
15.7.1 Economic analysis of biodiesel production
15.8 Conclusion
References
16 Lipid-derived biofuel: production methodologies
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Properties of biodiesel
16.3 Biodiesel production methodologies
16.3.1 Direct use and blending
16.3.2 Microemulsion
16.3.3 Pyrolysis
16.3.3.1 Pyrolysis process categorization
16.3.3.1.1 Slow pyrolysis process
16.3.3.1.2 Fast pyrolysis process
16.3.3.1.3 Flash pyrolysis process
16.3.3.2 Stages of pyrolysis process
16.3.3.2.1 Elimination of biochar
16.3.3.2.2 Product separation
16.3.3.3 Reactors used for pyrolysis
16.4 Transesterification process
16.4.1 Parameters affecting transesterification process
16.4.1.1 Effect of free fatty acid
16.4.1.2 Effect of moisture content
16.4.1.3 Concentration of catalyst
16.4.1.4 Effect of oil-to-alcohol-molar ratio
16.4.1.5 Effect of mixing intensity
16.4.1.6 Reaction temperature
16.4.1.7 Reaction time
16.4.1.8 Effect of cosolvents
16.4.2 Types of transesterification process
16.4.2.1 Catalytic transesterification
16.4.2.1.1 Acid catalysis
16.4.2.1.2 Base catalysis
16.4.2.2 Enzyme catalysts
16.4.2.3 Ionic liquid catalysts
16.4.2.4 Supercritical transesterification process
16.4.2.4.1 Noncatalytic process
16.4.2.4.2 Catalytic process
16.4.2.5 Recent technology
16.4.2.5.1 Microwave irradiation method
16.4.2.5.2 Ultrasonication method
16.5 Overview of production methods
16.6 Conclusion
References
17 Interesterification reaction of vegetable oil and alkyl acetate as alternative route for glycerol-free biodiesel synthesis
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biodiesel
17.3 Interesterification reaction
17.4 Kinetic model of interesterification reaction
17.5 Case study: kinetic study on the biodiesel synthesis from Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) with methyl acetate in the pre...
17.5.1 Methods
17.5.2 Kinetic model
17.5.3 Characterization of Jatropha oil
17.5.4 Effect of catalyst concentration
17.5.5 Effect of Jatropha oil to methyl acetate molar ratio
17.5.6 Effect of reaction time and temperature
17.5.7 Kinetic study
17.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
18 Recent advances of lipase-catalyzed greener production of biodiesel in organic reaction media: economic and sustainable ...
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Recent literature survey of lipase-catalyzed synthesis of biodiesel
18.3 Reaction parameters
18.3.1 Biocatalyst screening
18.3.2 Effect of oil-to-alcohol mole ratio
18.3.3 Effect of stepwise addition of alcohol
18.3.4 Effect of solvent and cosolvent
18.3.5 Effect of temperature
18.3.6 Effect of water content
18.3.7 Effect of biocatalyst amount
18.3.8 Effect of mass transfer
18.3.9 Effect of adsorbent
18.3.10 Effect alcohol chain length
18.3.11 Effect of feedstock (waste or fresh oils) from various sources
18.3.12 Effect of recycle
18.4 Economic and sustainable viewpoint
18.4.1 Catalyst lipase and immobilization
18.4.2 Use of waste feedstock
18.4.3 Processing parameters and optimization
18.4.4 Scale-up synthesis
18.4.5 Greenness of the process
18.5 Conclusion
References
19 Efficient utilization of seed biomass and its by-product for the biodiesel production
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Second-generation feedstock for biodiesel production
19.2.1 Advantages of nonedible oils
19.3 Problems in the exploitation of nonedible oils
19.4 Deoiled seed meal after oil extraction
19.4.1 Sulfonation
19.4.2 Carbonization followed by sulfonation
19.4.3 Hydrothermal carbonization
19.4.4 Pyrolyzation followed by sulfonation
19.5 Seed cake as a catalyst for esterification process
19.6 Factors influencing seed cake catalyst preparation
19.6.1 Reusability of catalyst
19.7 Characterization of catalyst
19.8 Conclusion
References
20 Catalytic pyrolysis for upgrading of biooil obtained from biomass
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass
20.2.1 Advantages of catalytic pyrolysis
20.3 Commercial-scale pyrolysis plant
20.4 Types of catalysts used in pyrolysis
20.4.1 Zeolites
20.4.1.1 Zeolite Socony Mobil–5 catalyst
20.4.2 Mesoporous catalyst
20.5 Chemical reactions in catalytic fast pyrolysis
20.5.1 Deoxygenation
20.5.2 Cracking
20.5.3 Dehydration
20.5.4 Decarboxylation
20.6 Reactors for catalytic pyrolysis
20.7 Process parameters
20.7.1 Temperature
20.7.2 Ratio of biomass to catalyst
20.7.3 Catalyst contact time
20.7.4 Vapor residence time
20.8 Challenges and recommendations
20.9 Future perspectives
20.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
21 Recent trends in the pyrolysis and gasification of lignocellulosic biomass
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Background
21.1.2 Potential feedstocks for pyrolysis and gasification
21.1.2.1 Municipal solid waste
21.1.2.2 Digestate
21.1.2.3 Forestry residue
21.1.2.4 Agricultural residue
21.1.3 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass
21.2 Pyrolysis
21.2.1 Types of pyrolysis
21.2.1.1 Slow pyrolysis
21.2.1.2 Intermediate pyrolysis
21.2.1.3 Fast pyrolysis
21.2.1.4 Flash pyrolysis
21.2.2 Reactor configuration
21.2.2.1 Fixed-bed reactor
21.2.2.2 Fluidized-bed reactor
21.2.2.3 Ablative reactor
21.2.2.4 Rotating cone
21.2.2.5 Auger/screw reactor
21.2.2.6 Pyroformer
21.2.2.7 Thermo-catalytic reforming
21.2.3 Factors affecting pyrolysis products
21.2.3.1 Impact of biomass type and particle size
21.2.3.2 Impact of temperature and residence time in pyrolysis
21.2.3.3 Impact of heating rate
21.2.4 Recent developments in pyrolysis
21.2.4.1 Thermo-catalytic reforming
21.2.4.2 Catalytic fast pyrolysis
21.2.4.3 Microwave pyrolysis
21.2.5 Current status and challenges of pyrolysis
21.2.5.1 Quality of biooil
21.2.5.2 Feedstock processing requirements for pyrolysis
21.3 Gasification
21.3.1 Gasification theory
21.3.1.1 Feedstock parameters
21.3.1.1.1 Moisture content
21.3.1.1.2 Particle size
21.3.1.1.3 Ash content
21.3.1.2 Gasification parameters
21.3.1.2.1 Bed material
21.3.1.2.2 Operating pressure
21.3.1.2.3 Gasification agent
21.3.1.2.4 Equivalence ratio
21.3.1.2.5 Steam-to-biomass ratio
21.3.2 Gasifier types
21.3.2.1 Fixed-bed gasifier
21.3.2.1.1 Downdraft gasifier
21.3.2.1.2 Updraft gasifier
21.3.2.1.3 Cross-draft gasifier
21.3.2.2 Fluidized-bed gasifier
21.3.2.2.1 Bubbling bed gasifier
21.3.2.2.2 Circulating bed gasifier
21.3.2.3 Other types of gasifiers
21.3.2.3.1 Entrained flow gasifier
21.3.2.3.2 Dual fluidized-bed gasifier
21.3.2.3.3 Plasma gasifier
21.3.2.3.4 Rotary kiln gasifier
21.3.3 Current status and challenges of gasification
21.3.3.1 Bed agglomeration
21.3.3.2 Product gas cleaning
21.4 Future of pyrolysis and gasification
21.4.1 Biomass-based hydrogen
21.4.2 Bioethanol
21.5 Conclusion
References
22 Experimental investigation of performance of bio diesel with different blends in diesel engine
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Need for alternative green fuel
22.1.2 Cashew nut shell liquid
22.1.3 Cardanol
22.2 Experimental section
22.2.1 Materials
22.2.2 Measurements
22.2.2.1 Densitometer
22.2.2.2 Bomb calorimeter
22.2.2.3 Kirloskar engine TV1 specifications
22.2.3 Blending of auxiliaries with cardanol
22.2.3.1 Physical and chemical characterization of cardanol
22.2.3.2 Emission and engine performance of compression ignition engine fueled with green fuel
22.2.4 Engine performance analysis
22.2.4.1 Maximum load calculation
22.2.4.2 Brake power
22.2.4.3 Indicated power
22.2.4.4 Frictional power
22.2.4.5 Total fuel consumption
22.2.4.6 Specific fuel consumption
22.2.4.7 Indicated mean effective pressure
22.2.4.8 Brake mean effective pressure
22.2.4.9 Indicated thermal efficiency
22.2.4.10 Brake thermal efficiency
22.2.4.11 Mechanical efficiency
22.2.4.12 Smoke opacity
22.3 Results and discussion
22.3.1 Density of pure components
22.3.2 Performance and emission characteristics of alternative green fuel
22.3.2.1 Variation of break thermal efficiency
22.3.2.2 Variation of specific fuel consumption
22.3.2.3 Variation of mechanical efficiency
22.3.2.4 Variation of air-fuel ratio
22.3.2.5 Variation of exhaust gas temperature
22.3.2.6 Variation of carbon monoxide emission
22.3.2.7 Variation of hydrocarbon emission
22.3.2.8 Variation of oxides of nitrogen emission
22.3.2.9 Variation of carbon dioxide emission
22.3.2.10 Variation of smoke opacity
22.4 Conclusion
References
23 Technoeconomic evaluation of 2G ethanol production with coproducts from rice straw
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Process description of rice straw to ethanol and coproducts
23.2.1 Pretreatment of rice straw
23.2.2 Enzymatic hydrolysis
23.2.3 Glucose (C6) fermentation
23.2.4 Xylose (C5) fermentation
23.2.5 Coproducts from rice straw
23.2.5.1 Furfural production
23.2.5.2 Lignin conversion
23.3 Process design
23.3.1 Various cases
23.3.2 Simulation methodology
23.4 Results and discussion
23.4.1 Material flow
23.4.2 Economic analysis
23.4.3 Sensitivity analysis
23.5 Future perspective
23.6 Conclusion
References
24 Technoeconomic analysis of biodiesel production using noncatalytic transesterification
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Characteristics of supercritical methanol
24.3 Reaction kinetics of transesterification
24.4 Upshots of operating parameters on biodiesel using SCM
24.4.1 Temperature
24.4.2 Pressure
24.4.3 Alcohol/oil ratio
24.4.4 Feedstock handling
24.5 Technoeconomic analysis of SCM method
24.5.1 Case study
24.5.2 Process results
24.5.3 Economic review
24.6 Conclusion
References
25 Techno-economic analysis of biodiesel production from nonedible biooil using catalytic transesterification
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Nonedible source for biodiesel production
25.2.1 Gossypium
25.2.2 Jatropha curcas
25.2.3 Simmondsia chinensis
25.2.4 Millettia pinnata
25.2.5 Linum usitatissimum
25.2.6 Madhuca longifolia
25.2.7 Azadirachta indica
25.2.8 Hevea brasiliensis
25.2.9 Nicotiana tabacum
25.2.10 Callophyllum inophyllum
25.3 Catalyst for biodiesel production
25.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
25.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
25.4 Techno-economic analysis
25.4.1 Steps involved in techno-economic analysis
25.4.1.1 Process design
25.4.1.2 Mass and energy balance
25.4.1.3 Cost estimation
25.4.1.4 Profitability analysis
25.4.1.5 Sensitivity analysis
25.4.2 Economic factors
25.4.2.1 Capital investment
25.4.2.2 Operating cost
25.4.2.3 Revenue
25.4.2.4 Gross margin
25.4.2.5 Return on investment
25.4.2.6 Payback period
25.4.2.7 Internal rate of return
25.4.2.8 Net present value
25.5 Techno-economic analysis of biodiesel production
25.6 Conclusion
Reference
26 Technoeconomic analysis of biofuel production from marine algae
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Macroalgae production
26.2.1 Cultivation
26.2.1.1 Hatchery production
26.2.1.2 Onshore growing methods
26.2.2 Harvesting
26.2.3 Postharvesting
26.2.3.1 Removing foreign objects
26.2.3.2 Milling
26.2.3.3 Dewatering and drying
26.3 Extraction of oil from macroalgae for biodiesel production
26.3.1 Pretreatment of algal biomass
26.3.2 Soxhlet extraction
26.3.3 Factors affecting extraction of algal oil
26.3.3.1 Effect of particle size
26.3.3.2 Effect of biomass moisture
26.3.3.3 Effect of extraction temperature
26.3.3.4 Effect of time
26.3.3.5 Effect of solvent-to-biomass ratio
26.3.3.6 Effect of solvent
26.3.3.7 Effect of solvent flow
26.4 Production of biodiesel
26.4.1 Transesterification of algal oil
26.4.1.1 Homogeneous catalysis
26.4.1.2 Heterogeneous catalysis
26.4.1.3 Kinetics of biodiesel production from algal oil
26.5 Production of biogas from macroalgae
26.5.1 Anaerobic digestion
26.6 Production of bioethanol from marine macroalgae
26.7 Technoeconomic analysis
26.7.1 Hatchery and grow-out systems
26.7.2 Drying systems
26.7.3 Transportation systems
26.7.4 Algal oil extraction systems
26.7.5 Transesterification of algal oil
26.7.6 Fermentation
26.7.7 Technoeconomic analysis of biofuel from macroalgae
26.8 Conclusion
References
27 Techno-economic assessment of biofuel production using thermochemical pathways
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Thermochemical pathways of biofuel production
27.2.1 Torrefaction
27.2.2 Hydrothermal liquefaction
27.2.3 Pyrolysis
27.2.4 Gasification
27.3 Techno-economic assessment of biofuels using thermochemical methods
27.3.1 Methodological framework of techno-economic assessment
27.3.2 Overview of the techno-economic assessment studies of biofuel production using thermo-chemical pathways
27.4 Challenges, progress, opportunities, and future perspectives
27.5 Conclusion
References
28 Modeling and technoeconomic analysis of biogas production from waste food
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Materials and methods
28.3 Technoeconomic analysis
28.4 Results and discussion
28.5 Economic analysis results
28.6 Conclusion
References
29 Techno-economic and environmental impact analysis of biofuels produced from microalgal biomass
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Technological assessment
29.2.1 Influential factors for biodiesel production
29.2.2 Algae cultivation
29.2.2.1 Optimum parameters
29.2.2.2 Mode of cultivation
29.2.3 Biomass pretreatment and extraction
29.2.4 Harvesting of algal culture
29.2.4.1 Physical and chemical methods for harvesting
29.2.5 Extraction
29.2.6 Transesterification
29.2.7 Scale-up
29.3 Economic assessment
29.3.1 Cost analysis
29.3.2 Techno-economic analysis
29.4 Environmental impact assessment
29.4.1 Microalgal biomass
29.4.1.1 Water
29.4.1.2 Land
29.4.1.3 Nutrients
29.4.1.4 Atmospheric emissions
29.5 Major challenges associated with biofuels production from microalgal biomass
29.6 Conclusions
References
30 Computer-aided environmental and technoeconomic analyses as tools for designing biorefineries under the circular bioecon...
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Circular bioeconomy framework towards biorefinery design
30.3 Computer-aided environmental analysis of biorefineries
30.4 Computer-aided technoeconomic analysis of biorefineries
30.5 Case study for the production of ethanol and succinic acid under circular economy
30.6 Environmental assessment of ethanol and succinic acid production under circular bioeconomy
30.7 Technoeconomic assessment of ethanol and succinic acid production under circular bioeconomy
30.8 Conclusions
References
31 Environmental impact analysis of biofuels and bioenergy: a globalperspective
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Biofuel: a sustainable fuel for future
31.3 Bioenergy: a sustainable fuel for future
31.4 Resource availability for biofuel production
31.5 Impact of biomass on environment
31.6 Impact of combustion efficiency in environment
31.7 Impact of biofuel production on biodiversity
31.8 Environmental impacts on biomass pretreatment
31.9 Managing ecosystems and its services
31.10 Regulations related to environmental sustainability
31.11 Impact of biofuel production on water quality
31.12 Conclusion
References
32 Environmental impacts of biofuels and their blends: a case study on waste vegetable oil-derived biofuel blends
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Environmental impacts of biofuels
32.2.1 Life cycle assessment methodology
32.2.2 Environmental impact categories
32.3 Environmental impacts of waste vegetable oil-based biofuels: a case study
32.3.1 Methods
32.3.2 Physical properties of various test fuels
32.3.3 Engine performance and emission analysis
32.3.4 Environmental impacts of various waste vegetable oil-based biofuels
32.3.4.1 Climate change
32.3.4.2 Terrestrial acidification
32.3.4.3 Eutrophication in water bodies
32.3.4.4 Environmental eco-toxicity
32.3.4.5 Particulate matter formation and ozone depletion
32.3.4.6 Resource depletion
32.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
33 Solid biofuel production, environmental impact, and technoeconomic analysis
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Importance of solid fuel
33.3 Types of solid biofuels
33.3.1 Wood-based fuel
33.3.2 Coal and coke
33.3.3 Peat
33.4 Processes for the usage of solid biofuel
33.4.1 Anaerobic digestion
33.4.2 Saccharification and fermentation
33.4.3 Torrefaction
33.4.4 Liquefaction
33.4.5 Gasification
33.4.6 Combustion
33.5 Environmental impact of solid biofuels
33.6 Technoeconomic analysis of solid biofuel
33.7 Conclusions
References
Index