Biofortification in Cereals: Progress and Prospects

Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Agronomical Approaches for Biofortification of Cereal Crops
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Global Prevalence of Micronutrient Deficiencies
1.3 Micronutrient Status in Indian Soil
1.4 How to Fight Against Micronutrient Malnutrition?
1.4.1 Biofortification by Agronomic Practices
1.4.1.1 The Agronomic Measure of Biofortification
1.5 Agronomical Practices for Biofortification in Cereals
1.5.1 Biofortification Through Fertilization
1.5.1.1 Fertilizers Application to Enhance Micronutrient Elements in Cereal Crops
1.5.2 Application of Micronutrient Fertilizers
1.5.3 Application of Other Soil Amendments
1.5.4 Inoculation of Biofertilizers to the Soil
1.6 Rice
1.7 Wheat
1.8 Maize
1.9 Barley
1.10 Sorghum
1.11 Application of Prebiotics as Micronutrient Promoters
1.12 Limitations of Agronomic Biofortification
1.13 Conclusion of the Agronomic Biofortification
References
2: Molecular Approaches for Biofortification of Cereal Crops
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Rice (Table 2.1)
2.3 Wheat
2.4 Maize
2.5 Oats
2.6 Pearl Millet
2.6.1 Molecular Approaches for Biofortification in Cereal Crops
2.6.1.1 Genomic Approaches
2.6.1.2 Genome Engineering
2.6.2 Molecular Strategies Achieved for Biofortification in the Following Cereals
2.6.2.1 Rice
2.6.2.2 Wheat
2.6.2.3 Maize
2.6.2.4 Sorghum
2.6.2.5 Millets
2.6.2.6 Oats
2.6.3 Limitations in Biofortification Through Molecular Approaches
2.7 Conclusion
2.8 Future Prospects
References
3: Molecular Approaches for Biofortification of Cereal Crops
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Molecular Approaches for Biofortification
3.3 Studying Genetics Using Molecular Approaches
3.3.1 Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) for Biofortification Traits
3.3.1.1 Dissection of Genome-Wide Genomic Regions Associated with Biofortification Traits
3.3.2 Molecular Breeding Approaches for Biofortification
3.3.2.1 Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS)
3.3.2.2 Genomic Selection for Biofortification Traits in Cereals
3.4 Status of Biofortification in Cereal Crops
3.4.1 Iron- and Zinc-Biofortified Rice
3.4.2 Zinc-Biofortified Wheat
3.4.3 Provitamin A Orange Maize
3.4.4 Iron-Enriched Pearl Millet
3.4.5 Zinc- and Iron-Rich Sorghum
3.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
4: Genome-Editing Approaches for Biofortification of Cereal Crops
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Global Issue of Hidden Hunger
4.1.1.1 Iron Deficiency
4.1.1.2 Zinc Deficiency
4.1.1.3 Vitamin a Deficiency
4.1.2 The Aim of Biofortification
4.2 Genome-Editing Advancement
4.2.1 Underlying Concepts of Genome Editing
4.2.2 Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)
4.2.3 Transcription Activator-like Effector Nucleases (TALENs)
4.2.4 Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/CRISPR-Associated Protein (CRISPR/Cas)
4.3 Genome Editing in Plants
4.3.1 Priority Traits for Genome Editing in Cereals: Enhanced Quality and Yield
4.3.2 Biofortification for Micronutrients: Fe, Provitamins, and Low Phytic Acid in Cereal Crops
4.3.2.1 Biofortification for Fe
4.3.2.2 Biofortification for Provitamin A
4.3.2.3 Low Phytic Acid Biofortification
4.3.2.4 Other Traits
4.4 Different Promoters and Transformation Methods for Cereals´ Genome Editing
4.4.1 Constitutive Promoters
4.4.2 Tissue-Specific or Developmental Phase-Specific Promoters
4.4.3 Inducible Promoters
4.4.4 Artificial Promoters
4.5 Transformation Methods for Genome Editing
4.5.1 Agrobacterium-Mediated Transport
4.5.2 Particle Bombardment
4.5.3 Protoplast Transformation
4.6 Multiplex Gene Editing
4.6.1 Multiplex Editing through Csy4 Nuclease
4.6.2 Multiplex Editing Based on Polycistronic T-RNA Transcripts
4.6.3 Multiplex Editing Based on Drosha and Dicer
4.7 Challenges
4.8 Future Perspectives
References
5: Metabolomic Approaches to Study Nutritional Aspects in Cereal Crops
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Application of Metabolomics in Crops
5.3 Different Applications of Metabolomics in Crop Production
5.3.1 Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops
5.3.2 Plant Improvement by Metabolomic Engineering
5.3.3 Metabolomic Crop Improvement
5.3.4 Ecological Metabolomics
5.3.5 Biological Control
5.3.6 Metabolomic-Assisted Breeding
5.4 Tools and Databases Used in Metabolomics
5.5 Cutting-Edge/High-Throughput Analytical Techniques in Metabolomic Analysis
5.6 Metabolomic Approaches to Improve Nutritional Quality in Major Crops
5.7 . Conclusions and Future Perspective
References
6: Biofortification of Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Understanding of Essential Mineral Uptake by Plants
6.2.1 Iron
6.2.2 Iodine
6.2.3 Zinc
6.2.4 Calcium
6.2.5 Selenium
6.3 Transgenic Efforts for the Development of Golden rice
6.3.1 Golden Rice: First Attempt
6.3.2 Golden Rice 2
6.3.3 Case Study 1: Thiamine Biofortification of Rice
6.3.4 Case Study 2: Biofortification of High-Zinc Rice
6.3.5 Case Study 3: RNAi Technology Low-Phytate Rice
6.4 Different Approaches for Improvement of Nutraceutical Properties in Rice Grain
6.5 Breeding Approach
6.6 Agronomic Approach
6.7 Biotechnological Approach
6.8 Challenges for the Public Release of Golden Rice
6.9 Economic and Social Constraints for the Biofortified Rice
6.10 Conclusion
References
7: Biofortification of Wheat Using Current Resources and Future Challenges
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Top Priorities for Wheat Biofortification
7.2.1 Zinc
7.2.2 Iron
7.2.3 Selenium
7.2.4 Iodine
7.2.5 Provitamins
7.2.6 Protein
7.3 Agronomic Biofortification of Wheat
7.4 Breeding Efforts for Wheat Biofortification
7.5 Challenges, Limitations, and Success of Breeding Approaches for Wheat Biofortification
7.6 Molecular Understanding of Essential Micronutrient Uptake and Deposition in Wheat Grain
7.6.1 Factors Affecting Micronutrient Availability to Wheat Grains
7.6.2 Molecular-Level Translocation of Micronutrients from Soil to Grain in the Wheat
7.7 Transgenic Efforts for the Development of Biofortified Wheat
7.7.1 Challenges for the Public Release of Transgenic Wheat
7.8 Economic and Social Constraints for the Use of Biofortified Wheat
7.9 Genome Editing Approaches for Wheat Biofortification
7.10 Improving the Nutraceutical Properties of Wheat
7.11 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
8: Biofortification of Maize (Zea mays)
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Priorities for Maize Biofortification
8.2.1 Essential Micronutrients/Metals
8.2.2 Basic Micronutrients
8.3 Protein
8.4 Agronomic Biofortification of Maize
8.5 Breeding Efforts for Maize Biofortification
8.6 QTL Introgression Exploring Wild Resources
8.7 Challenges, Limitations, and Success of Breeding Approaches for Maize Biofortification
8.8 Molecular Understanding of Essential Micronutrient Uptake and Deposition in Maize Grain
8.9 Nutrient Accumulation, Remobilization, and Autophagy Recycling
8.10 Transgenic Efforts for the Development of Biofortified Maize
8.11 Challenges for the Public Release of Transgenic Maize
8.12 Economic and Social Constraints for the Biofortified Maize
8.13 Genome Editing Approaches for Biofortification of Maize
References
9: Biofortification of Barley for Nutritional Security
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biofortification Approaches
9.3 Genetic and Plant Breeding Approach
9.4 Transgenic and Biotechnological Approach
9.5 Transgenics
9.6 Genome Editing
9.7 Omics in Better Understanding Nutrient Uptake, Storage, and Bioavailability
9.8 Agronomic Approach
9.9 Fertilization Application
9.10 Microbes in Biofortification
9.11 Biofortification for Minerals
9.12 Genetic Diversity for Mineral Content in Barley
9.13 Transporters for Mineral Uptake and Transport
9.14 Zinc
9.15 Iodine
9.16 Selenium
9.17 Iron
9.18 Biofortification for Antioxidants and Vitamins
9.19 Factors Affecting Biofortification
9.20 Mineral-Deficient Soil
9.21 Soil Condition
9.22 Fertilizer Application
9.23 Soil Microflora
9.24 Bioavailability of Nutrients
9.25 Storage and Processing
9.26 Advantage of Biofortification
9.27 Conclusion
References
10: Biofortification of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Top Priorities for Sorghum Biofortification
10.2.1 Essential Micronutrients/Metals: Zn and Fe
10.2.2 Basic Micronutrients: Selenium and Iodine
10.2.3 Provitamins
10.2.4 Proteins
10.3 Agronomic Biofortification of Sorghum
10.4 Breeding Efforts for Sorghum Biofortification
10.5 Challenges, Limitations, and Success of Breeding Approaches for Sorghum Biofortification
10.6 Molecular Understanding of Essential Micronutrient Uptake and Deposition in Sorghum Grain
10.6.1 Iron (Fe)
10.6.1.1 Iron Uptake and Transport
10.6.1.2 Fe Deposition in Grains
10.6.2 Zinc (Zn)
10.6.2.1 Zn Uptake and Transport
10.6.2.2 Zn Deposition in Grains
10.6.3 Provitamin A
10.7 Transgenic Efforts for the Development of Biofortified Sorghum
10.8 Challenges for the Public Release of Transgenic Sorghum
10.9 Economical and Social Constraints for the Biofortified Sorghum
10.10 Genome Editing Approaches for Biofortification of Sorghum
References
11: Biofortification of Oats (Avena sativa)
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Top Priorities for Oat Biofortification
11.2.1 Essential Micronutrients/Metals: Zn and Fe
11.2.2 Basic Micronutrients: Selenium and Iodine
11.2.3 Provitamins
11.2.4 Protein
11.3 Agronomic Biofortification of Oats
11.4 Breeding Efforts for Oat Biofortification
11.5 Challenges, Limitations, and Success of Breeding Approaches for Oat Biofortification
11.6 Molecular Understanding of Essential Micronutrient Uptake and Deposition in Oat Grain
11.6.1 Iron (Fe)
11.6.1.1 Iron Uptake and Transport
11.6.1.2 Fe Deposition in Grains
11.6.2 Zinc (Zn)
11.6.2.1 Zn Uptake and Transport
11.6.2.2 Zn Deposition in Grains
11.7 Transgenic Efforts for the Development of Biofortified Oats
11.8 Challenges for the Public Release of Transgenic Oats
11.9 Economic and Social Constraints for the Biofortified Oats
11.10 Genome Editing Approaches for Biofortification of Oats
References
12: Nutrigenomics in Cereals
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Nutrition Value of Cereals
12.2.1 Composition and Nutritional Aspects of Cereals
12.2.1.1 Carbohydrates
12.2.1.2 Protein
12.2.1.3 Lipids
12.2.1.4 Minerals
12.2.1.5 Vitamins
12.2.1.6 Enzymes
12.3 Cereal and Cereal Product Contribution to the Diet
12.3.1 Cereals and Cereal-Based Food
12.3.1.1 Bread
12.3.1.2 Breakfast Cereals
12.3.1.3 Bakery Products
12.4 What Is Nutrigenomics?
12.4.1 Origin of Nutrigenomics
12.4.2 Genesis and Components of Nutrigenomics
12.4.3 Modern Nutrigenomics: Personalized Nutrition
12.5 Nutrigenomic Diseases and Molecular Diagnosis
12.5.1 Phenylketonuria (PKU)
12.5.2 Identification of the Gene(s) for Lactose Intolerance (LI)
12.5.3 Galactosemia
12.6 Malnutrition: The Genesis of Chronic Diseases
12.6.1 Obesity
12.6.2 Cancers
12.6.3 Type 2 Diabetes
12.6.4 Cardiovascular Diseases
12.7 Global Status of Nutrigenomics Research
12.7.1 Global Health Scenario
12.7.2 India´s Health Scenario
12.8 Role of Nutrigenomics for Better, Healthier, and Longer Life
12.9 Nutrigenomics Research Tools
12.9.1 Genomics
12.9.1.1 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism
12.9.2 Transcriptomics and RNA-Seq Technology
12.9.3 Proteomics
12.9.3.1 Applications of Proteomics in Nutrigenomics
12.9.4 Metabolomics
12.10 Nutrigenomics and Public Awareness
12.10.1 Public Awareness Events
12.11 Nutrition and Gene Interactions
12.11.1 Nutrition and Gene Regulation
12.11.2 Synergism of Nutrients and Gene Expression
12.12 The Possibilities of Transgenic Foods for Malnutrition Eradication Through Cereals
12.12.1 Genetically Engineered Rice (Oryza sativa)
12.12.2 Genetically Engineered Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
12.12.3 Genetically Engineered Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
12.12.4 Genetically Engineered Maize (Zea mays)
12.12.5 Genetically Engineered Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor)
12.13 Genome Editing Approaches for Nutrient Enrichment in Cereals
12.13.1 Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs)
12.13.2 Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs)
12.13.3 Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR-CAS System)
12.14 Nutrigenomics Future
References
13: Genetically Modified Cereal Crops Regulation Policies
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Need of Transgenic Food Crops
13.2.1 Population Explosion
13.2.2 Biotic Stresses in Plants (Pests and Diseases)
13.2.3 Burden on Natural Resources
13.3 GM Crops: The Way out
13.4 GM Cereal Crops and Food Security
13.4.1 Genetically Engineered Cereal Crops against Biotic Stress
13.4.2 GM Cereals against Insect Pests
13.4.3 GM Cereals Against Plant Diseases
13.4.4 Genetically Engineered Cereal Crops against Herbicide
13.4.5 Genetically Engineered Cereal Crops Against Abiotic Stress
13.5 Regulation of GM Cereal Crops
13.5.1 International Cereal Crop Regulation Frameworks
13.5.1.1 USDA Regulation of Pharma Crops
13.5.1.2 U.S. Regulation of Genetically Modified Crops
13.5.1.3 The FDA Consultative Process for GM Crops
13.5.2 Regulation of GM Crops in India
13.5.2.1 Biosafety Assessment Guidelines
13.6 Conclusion
References
14: Nanotechnological Approaches for Biofortification Concept and Concern in Cereal Crops
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Essentials of Biofortification Research in Agriculture
14.3 Nano-Farming: A New Era in Biofortified Agriculture
14.4 Use of Nanoparticles in Cereal Crop Improvement
14.4.1 Zeolite-Based Nano-Fertilizer
14.4.2 Zinc-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.3 Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.4 Copper-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.5 Titanium Dioxide-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.6 Cerium Oxide-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.7 Noble Metal-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.8 Selenium-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.9 Carbon- and Silicon Dioxide-Based Nanoparticles
14.4.10 Biofortification in Cereal Crops
14.5 Biosafety of Nanomaterials in Sustainable Agriculture
14.6 Conclusion
References