Bioelectronics: Materials, Technologies, and Emerging Applications

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1. Introduction to Bioelectronics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamental Concepts of Bioelectronics
1.2.1 Bioelectronics with a Size Scale
1.2.2 Timing in Bioelectronics
1.2.3 Transductions of Signals
1.2.4 Mechanism of Bioelectronics
1.2.5 Materials' Reactivity
1.3 Innovative Technologies in Bioelectronics
1.4 Materials and Their Classifications in Bioelectronics
1.4.1 Bioelectronics with Inorganic Semiconductors
1.4.2 Bioelectronics with Organic Semiconductor
1.4.3 Bioelectronics with Inorganic Conductors
1.4.4 Bioelectronics with Nanocarbons
1.4.5 Bioelectronics with Organic Conductors
1.5 Conclusions
References
2. Materials and Their Classifications in Bioelectronics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification of Bioelectronics Materials According to Their Composition
2.2.1 Inorganic Bioelectronics Materials
2.2.2 Organic Bioelectronics Materials
2.2.2.1 Allotropes of Carbon
2.3 Classification of Bioelectronics Materials According to Their Application
2.3.1 Electronic Materials to Solve Medicine and Biology Problems
2.3.1.1 Materials for Electroactive Scaffolding
2.3.1.2 Materials for Photostimulation
2.3.1.3 Materials for Drug Administration
2.3.2 Biological Systems Used in Electronics Applications
2.3.3 Materials to Interface Electronic Devices with Living Systems
2.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3. 2D Materials for Bioelectronics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Key Properties of Materials for Bioelectronics
3.2.1 Biocompatibility
3.2.2 Shape Conformation
3.2.3 Electrical and Optical Properties
3.2.4 Mechanical Properties
3.3 Synthesis of 2D Materials for Bioelectronics
3.3.1 Top-Down Synthesis Protocols
3.3.1.1 Scotch-Tape Protocol
3.3.1.2 Mechanical Force-Assisted Liquid Exfoliation
3.3.1.3 Liquid Exfoliation Through Ion Intercalation and Ion Exchange
3.3.1.4 Liquid Exfoliation Through Oxidation and Reduction
3.3.1.5 Liquid Exfoliation Via Etching
3.3.2 Bottom-Up Synthesis Protocols
3.3.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition
3.3.2.2 Wet-Chemical Synthesis
3.4 Mechanism of Bioelectronic System
3.4.1 Mechanism for Field-Effect Transistors
3.4.2 Mechanism for Nanopore-Based Bioelectronics
3.4.3 Mechanism for Multi-Electrode Array-Based Bioelectronics
3.4.4 Mechanism for Optical Resonator-Integrated Bioelectronics
3.4.5 Mechanism for Multifunctional Sensor Array-Based Bioelectronics
3.5 Emerging Challenges and Future Prospective
References
4. Materials for Organic Bioelectronics
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Why Organic Materials are Suitable for Bioelectronics
4.3 Conjugated Polymers
4.3.1 Polyaniline
4.3.2 Polypyrrole
4.3.3 Poly(3,4-Ethylene Dioxythiophene): Polystyrene Sulfonate
4.3.4 Polythiophene
4.4 Small Molecules
4.4.1 Conjugated Oligomers
4.4.2 Organic Dyes and Pigments
4.4.3 Photoswitches
4.5 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
4.5.1 Graphene
4.5.2 Graphene Micro/Nanostructures
4.6 Perspectives
References
5. Nanomaterials and Lab-on-a-Chip Technologies
5.1 Introduction to LOC
5.2 Lab-on-a-Chip Detection Technique
5.3 Nanomaterials and Lab-on-a-Chip Technologies
5.3.1 Metal Nanomaterials
5.3.2 Metal Oxide Nanomaterials in Lab on Chip
5.3.3 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials in a Lab-on-Chip
5.4 Conclusion and Future Look
References
6. CMOS Bioelectronics: Current and Future Trends
6.1 Introduction
6.2 CMOS Sensors for Neural Interfaces
6.2.1 Neurostimulation
6.2.2 Neural Recording
6.3 Electrochemical Sensors
6.3.1 Electrochemical Sensing Techniques
6.3.2 Miniaturization of Electrochemical Biosensors and Example CMOS Electrochemical Biosensors
6.4 Interfacial Capacitance Sensors and Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Spectroscopy
6.4.1 Transducers for Interfacial Capacitance Sensing
6.4.2 Examples of Applications of CMOS Capacitance Sensors
6.4.3 Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing
6.4.4 Examples of Applications of CMOS ECIS Sensors
6.5 Image Sensors
6.5.1 CMOS Image Sensor Architecture
6.5.2 CMOS Image Sensors in Fluorescence Imaging
6.6 Conclusions
References
7. Identification of the Scientific and Technological Trajectory in the Area of Bioelectronics: A Patent and Networks Analysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Scientific and Technological Advances in Bioelectronics
7.3 Methodology
7.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results
7.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
8. Innovative Electronic Approaches for Biomarker Detection
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis
8.3 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
8.4 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
8.5 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)
8.6 Colorimetric Assay
8.7 Electrochemical Assay
8.7.1 Electromagnetic Sensors
8.7.2 Optical Sensors
8.7.3 Acoustic Sensor
8.8 Fluorescence (FL) Methods
8.9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
8.10 Microfluidic Devices
8.11 High Throughput Technologies
8.12 Conclusion
References
9. Bioinspired Prosthetic Interfaces for Bioelectronics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Skin-Inspired Multifunctional Interfaces
9.2.1 Artificial Mechanoreceptors
9.2.1.1 Mimicking the SA Receptors - Static Force Transduction
9.2.1.2 Mimicking the Rapid Adapting (RA) Receptors - Dynamic Force Transduction
9.2.1.3 Biomimetic Sensors
9.2.2 Skin-Like Stretchable Electronics
9.2.2.1 Intrinsically Stretchable Materials
9.2.2.2 Extrinsically Stretchable Platforms
9.2.3 Multifunctional Electronic Skin as Interactive Interfaces
9.2.3.1 Electronic Skins for Human
9.2.3.2 Electronic Skins for Prosthesis
9.2.4 Self-Healing and Biodegradability
9.3 Artificial Biosignal Interfaces
9.3.1 Signal Encoding/Transmission in the Nervous System
9.3.2 Signal Encoding in Electronic Skin Systems
9.3.2.1 Analog Signal Conversion and Amplification
9.3.2.2 Biomimetic Analog to Digital Transform
9.3.2.3 Synaptic Signal Processing
9.3.3 Multiple Access Techniques for Signal Transmission
9.3.3.1 Time-Divisional Access
9.3.3.2 Event-Based Access
9.3.3.3 Biomimetic Synaptic Access
9.4 Implantable Neural Interfaces
9.4.1 Stimulation Methods
9.4.1.1 Flexible Stimulation Probes
9.4.1.2 Multifunctional Stimulation Probes
9.4.2 Recording Methods
9.4.2.1 Epidermal Recording Devices
9.4.2.2 Implantable Recording Devices
9.5 Summary and Perspectives
References
10. Biocompatible and Biodegradable Organic Transistors
10.1 Bio-organic Transistors
10.2 Electrochemical Properties of Bio-Organic Transistors
10.3 Organic Transistors or Biosensors for Cancer Detection
10.4 The Mechanism of Green Organic Transistors/Biosensors in the Cancer Therapy
10.5 Biosensors in Canine Mammary Tumors
10.6 Biosensors Used in Canine Mammary Tumors
10.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11. Microbial Nanowires
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Microbial Pilus: From Fimbriae to Nanowires
11.2.1 Chaperone-Usher (CU) Pili
11.2.2 Curli
11.2.3 Type III Secretion System (T3SS)
11.2.4 Type IV Secretion System (T4SS)
11.2.5 Type IV Pili
11.3 Microbial Nanowires and Bacterial Extracellular Electron Transfer (EET)
11.4 Nanowire-Producing Bacteria: Taxonomy, Description, and nanowire Production
11.4.1 Description of the Genus Geobacter
11.4.2 Description of the Genus Shewanella
11.4.3 Nanowire Formation and Structure
11.5 Geobacter and Shewanella EET Mechanism
11.5.1 The Hopping Mechanism by S. Oneidensis Strain MR-1 Nanowires
11.5.2 Tunneling Mechanism
11.5.3 Metal-Like Conductivity by G. Sulfurreducens Nanowires
11.6 Biotechnological Application of Microbial EET
11.6.1 Bioremediation
11.6.2 Bioelectricity and Bioenergy Production
11.7 Conclusion
References
12. Semiconducting Nanostructured Materials for Bioelectronics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Semiconducting Materials and Their Advantages for Bioelectronics
12.2.1 Wide Bandgap-Based Materials for Bioelectronics
12.2.2 Conducting Polymer-Based Materials for Bioelectronics
12.2.3 Carbon-Based Materials for Bioelectronics
12.3 Methods Used for Fabrication of Bioelectronics
12.3.1 Top-Down Approach
12.3.2 Bottom-Up Approach
12.4 Applications of Bioelectronics
12.4.1 Biosensors
12.4.2 Wearable and Implantable Devices
12.4.3 Printable/Flexible Bioelectronics
12.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
13. Wide Bandgap Semiconductors for Bioelectronics
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Classes of Wide Bandgap Semiconductors
13.2.1 II-VI Materials
13.2.2 III-Nitride
13.2.3 Silicon Carbide - SiC
13.3 Fundamental Concepts and Properties of Wide Bandgap Semiconductors
13.3.1 Piezoelectric Effect, Piezoelectric Polarization, and Piezoresistive Effect
13.3.2 Direct Bandgap and High Optical Transmittance
13.3.3 High Electron Mobility
13.3.4 Biocompatibility and Biodegradability
13.4 Which Techniques Have Been Used to Fabricate These Devices?
13.4.1 Direct Growth of Nanostructures on Flexible Substrates
13.4.2 Fabrication Methods of Nanostructures Followed by Transferring Processes
13.4.2.1 Bottom-Up Growth
13.4.2.2 Top-Down Growth
13.4.2.3 Transferring Processes
13.5 Applications - Where They Can Be Used in Bioelectronics?
References
14. Recent Advancements in MOF-Based Nanogenerators for Bioelectronics
14.1 Introduction
14.2 MOFs as Sensing Materials
14.3 MOFs for Nanogenerators
14.4 Wearable MOF-Based Sensors
14.5 Future Scope
References
15. MXenes-Based Polymer Composites for Bioelectronics
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Synthesis of MXenes
15.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition
15.2.2 Hydrothermal Synthesis
15.2.3 Electrochemical Synthesis
15.2.4 In-situ Polymerization
15.3 Mxenes: Structure and Properties
15.3.1 Structure
15.3.2 Properties
15.3.2.1 Mechanical Properties
15.3.2.2 Chemical Properties
15.3.2.3 Electronic Properties
15.3.2.4 Magnetic Properties
15.3.2.5 Optical Property
15.4 Classes of Bioanalytical Sensors Based on MXenes
15.4.1 Bioelectronics
15.4.2 Enzyme Sensors
15.4.3 Non-enzymatic Sensors
15.4.4 Electrochemical Immunosensors
15.4.5 DNA-Based Biosensors
15.4.6 Application of MXene Modified Surfaces for Urea, Uric Acid, and Creatinine
15.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
16. Bioelectronics with Graphene Nanostructures
16.1 Introduction
16.2 What are Graphenes?
16.3 Synthesis of Graphene
16.4 Characterization Techniques of Graphene-Based Nanostructures
16.5 Properties of Graphene
16.6 Graphene-Based Bioelectronics
16.7 Conclusion and Outlook
References
17. Nanomaterial-Assisted Bioelectronic Devices towards Biocomputer
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biomaterial-Based Bioelectronic Devices
17.2.1 Protein-Based Bioelectronic Devices
17.2.2 Nucleic Acid-Based Bioelectronic Devices
17.3 Nanomaterials for Bioelectronic Devices
17.3.1 Metal Nanomaterials
17.3.2 Carbon Nanomaterials
17.3.3 TMD Nanomaterials
17.3.4 Mxene Nanomaterials
17.4 Nanomaterial-Assisted Protein-Based Bioelectronic Devices
17.4.1 Biomemory
17.4.2 Biologic Gate/Bioprocessor
17.4.3 Biotransistor
17.5 Nanomaterial-Assisted Nucleic Acid-Based Bioelectronic Devices
17.5.1 Biomemory
17.5.2 Biologic Gate/Bioprocessor
17.5.3 Biotransistor
17.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
18. Conductive Hydrogels for Bioelectronics
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Conducting Polymers
18.2.1 Conducting Polymer-Based Hydrogels
18.2.2 Conductive Hydrogels
18.2.3 Hydrogels Based on Zwitterionic Polymers
18.2.4 Ion Conductive Hydrogels
18.2.5 Conductive Filler-Based Hydrogels
18.3 Applications of Hydrogels in Bioelectronics
18.3.1 Coating of Hydrogel on the Neural Electrode
18.3.2 Artificial Skin
18.3.3 Flexible and Implantable Bioelectronics
18.3.4 Electronic Tongue
18.4 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
19. Conducting Polymer Composites for Metabolite Sensing
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Classification of Conducting Polymers
19.2.1 Intrinsically and Extrinsically Conducting Polymers
19.3 Common Examples of Conducting Polymers
19.3.1 Polyaniline (PANi)
19.3.2 Polyacetylene (PA)
19.3.3 Poly(3,4-Ethylene Dioxythiophene) (PEDOT)
19.3.4 Polypyrrole
19.3.5 Polyfuran
19.3.6 Polythiophene (PTH)
19.4 Application of Conductive Polymers for Metabolite Sensing
19.4.1 Conducting Polymer-Based Sensors for Pharmaceutical Drug and Their Metabolite
19.4.2 Conducting Polymer-Based Sensors For Biogenic Molecules and Biomarkers
19.4.3 Conducting Polymer-Based Sensors for Foodborne Toxins, Food Spoilage, and Foodborne Pathogens
19.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
20. Self-Powered Devices: A New Paradigm in Biomedical Engineering
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Survey of Power Requirements of Biomedical Devices
20.3 Emergent Technologies for Self-Powered Generators
20.3.1 Nanogenerators
20.3.1.1 PENG
20.3.1.2 TENG
20.3.1.3 TEG
20.3.1.4 PyNG
20.3.2 Photovoltaic Energy Harvesting
20.4 Self-Powered Devices Based on the New Technologies
20.4.1 Self-Powered Cardiac and Pulse Sensors
20.4.2 Self-Powered Breath Sensors
20.4.3 Implantable Photovoltaic Cells
20.5 Artificial Sensory Organs and Exquisite Biomedical Devices
20.5.1 Electronic Skin (e-Skin)
20.5.2 Wound Healing
20.5.3 Cardiac Pacemakers
20.6 Future Developments and Associated Roadblocks
20.7 Conclusions
References
21. Implantable Microelectronics
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Sensor and Actuator Designs
21.3 Biocompatibility
21.4 Intelligence
21.5 Communication
21.6 Energy Supply
21.7 System Integration
21.8 Ethical Aspects
21.9 Conclusions and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
22. Printable and Flexible Biosensors
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Categories of Biosensors
22.1.1.1 Classification Based on Bioreceptor
22.1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices
22.1.1.1.2 Bioreceptor Immobilization
22.1.1.2 Classification Based on Transducer
22.1.1.3 Classification Based on Electron Transfer
22.1.2 Characterization Techniques
22.1.3 Printable and Flexible Biosensor Fabrication
22.2 Printable and Flexible Biosensors' Applications
22.2.1 Application in Health Management
22.2.2 Application in Energy Harvesting
22.2.3 Applications in Environmental Monitoring
22.3 Conclusion and Future Outlook
References
23. Conducting Polymer-Based Biocomposites in Flexible Bioelectronics
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Materials
23.2.1 PTh
23.2.2 PANi
23.2.3 PPy
23.2.4 PA
23.2.5 PEDOT
23.2.6 PVDF
23.3 Flexible Bioelectronics Synthesis, Fabrication, and Structural Design
23.3.1 PANi
23.3.2 PPy
23.3.3 PA
23.3.4 PEDOT
23.3.5 PVDF
23.4 Functions and Devices in Recent Bioelectronic Application
23.5 Conclusion and Future Aspects
References
Index