Bio-Based Flame Retardants for Polymeric Materials provides a comprehensive overview of flame retardants derived directly and indirectly from plant sources, drawing on cutting-edge research and covering preparation methods, testing and evaluation techniques, enhanced properties, and end applications. Chapters introduce bio-based materials in the context of additives for flame retardancy, explaining fundamentals and testing methods and analyzing synthetic approaches and the potential advantages of pursuing a bio-based approach. This is followed by detailed coverage of bio-based retardants, with each chapter covering a specific source and guiding the reader systematically through preparation techniques, evaluation methods, properties and applications.
Throughout the book, the latest progress in the field is critically reviewed, and there is a continual emphasis on novel approaches to achieve enhanced properties and performant materials. This is an essential guide for all those with an interest in innovative, sustainable flame retardant additives for polymeric materials, including researchers, scientists, advanced students, and more.
Author(s): Yuan Hu, Hafezeh Nabipour, Xin Wang
Publisher: Elsevier
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 475
City: Amsterdam
Front matter
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Introduction to flame retardants for polymeric materials
Introduction
Commercial flame retardants
Halogenated flame retardants
Organophosphorus flame retardants
Inorganic flame retardants
Nitrogen-based flame retardants
Silicon-based flame retardants
Intumescent systems
Bio-sourced flame retardants
Tannins
Lignin
Chitin
Chitosan
Starch
Phytic acid
DNA
Vegetable oil
Mechanism of bio-based flame retardants
Conclusion
References
Synthetic approaches to bio-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Introduction
Synthesis of bio-based flame-retardant epoxy resins
Synthesis of bio-based flame-retardant benzoxazine resins
Synthesis of bio-based flame-retardant polyurethanes
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Fire testing methods of bio-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Introduction
Laboratory-scale flammability/combustion/thermal behavior tests
Microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC)
Cone calorimetry
UL 94
Limiting oxygen index (LOI)
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
National Bureau of Standards (NBS) smoke chamber
Correlations between flammability tests
MCC/cone calorimetry correlations
MCC/TGA correlations
Correlations between MCC, cone calorimetry, UL 94, and LOI
Analytical testing techniques
Gas-phase analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR)
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS)
Solid-phase/residue analysis
Spectroscopic techniques
Infrared spectroscopy (IR)
Raman spectroscopy
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Elemental analysis
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
Scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX)
Microscopy/imaging techniques
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Optical microscopy
Microcomputerized tomography (μCT or microCT)
Commercial product testing/standards
Cable and wire flame-spread tests
Large-scale fire/flammability tests
Miscellaneous polymer tests
Summary
References
Cellulose-based flame retardants for polymeric materials
Introduction
Synthesis and properties
Synthesis and structure of cellulose
Biosynthesis
Polymerization
Types
Properties
Molecular weight
Solubility
Stability
Mechanism of thermal degradation
Application
Global markets
Economics of flame-retardant polymers
Commercial applications
Construction and automotive industrial sector
Flammable material coatings
Packaging and barrier material
Paper
Electronics
Textiles
Flame retardancy
Fabrication methods
Vacuum filtered
Drying
Freeze-drying
Aerogel
Layer by layer
Cross-linked
Sol-gel
Acid hydrolysis
Survey of published data
Flame-retardancy trends
Pyrolysis of cellulose
Below 300C
Over 300C
Combustion gases
Char formation mechanism
Flame retardancy of applying salts
Conclusion
References
Lignin and its derivatives: Potential feedstock for renewable flame-retardant polymers
Introduction
Thermal properties and analysis methods for flame retardancy of lignin
Lignin-based flame retardants
Epoxy-lignin
Polybutylene succinate (PBS)-lignin
PU-lignin
PP-lignin
PLA-lignin
Vanillin-based flame retardants
Eugenol-based flame retardants
Guaiacol-based flame retardants
Challenges and future perspective
Conclusions
References
Cardanol-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Introduction
Functionalization of cardanol
Cardanol-derived intrinsically flame-retardant polymers
Cardanol-based epoxy resins
Cardanol-based benzoxazines
Cardanol-based novolac resins
Cardanol-based polyurethanes
Cardanol-based polyacrylates
Others
Cardanol-derived flame-retardant additives for polymers
Organic cardanol-derived flame-retardant additives
Inorganic-organic hybrid cardanol-derived flame-retardant additives
Summary and perspectives
References
Chitosan-based flame-retardant polymeric materials and their applications
Introduction
The use of chitosan and its derivatives as flame retardants for bulk polymer systems
The use of chitosan and its derivatives as flame retardants for textiles
The use of chitosan and its derivatives as flame retardants for flexible polyurethane foams
Conclusions and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Development of novel flame-retardant polymers based on eugenol
Introduction
Sourcing/extraction/toxicity
Origins
Production
Toxicity
Classical applications
Eugenol functionalization and flame-retardant properties
Route 1-Eugenol as monomer for epoxy resin
Route 2-Eugenol as monomer for polybenzoxazine
Route 3-Modification of eugenol with FR groups to improve the flame retardancy of epoxy resins and polybenzoxazines
Route 4-Eugenol for other polymers
Route 5-Eugenol for FR additives
A brief comparison between various bio-based building blocks
Conclusions
References
Flame retardants from starch: Phosphorus derivatives of isosorbide
Introduction
Results and discussion
Conclusions
References
Flame-retardant polymeric materials from renewable vanillin
Introduction
Synthesis of vanillin
Flame-retardant vanillin-based epoxy thermosets
Conclusions and future perspectives
References
Furan-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Introduction
Origins and synthesis of different bio-based furan monomers
Halogen- and phosphorus-free furan-based flame retardants
Phosphorus-containing furan-based flame retardants
Inorganic furan-based flame retardants
Flame retardancy performance summary of furan-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Conclusion and prospects
References
Advances in alginate-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Introduction
Sources of alginates
Algal sources
Bacterial sources
Physical and chemical properties of alginates
Stability: Solid alginates
Stability: Alginate solutions
Solubility
Physical factors
Chemical factors
Viscosity
Hydrogels
Diffusion gelation
Internal gelation or in situ gelation
Cooling gelation
Alginates as a flame retardant
Mechanism of action
Methods for the development of alginate-based flame retardants
Layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly
In situ and sol-gel method
Freeze-drying method
Applications of alginate-based flame-retardant polymers
Alginates as an additive
Polyamides
Polyesters
Polyurethane
Polyolefin
Alginates as a reactant
Conclusions
References
Phenolic-based phosphorus flame retardants for polymeric materials
Introduction
Results and discussion
Conclusions
References
P-N-modified starch: A polymeric flame retardant for wood-based materials
Introduction
Structure-property relationships and modes of action of SPCs
Synthesis and chemical structure of SPCs
Thermal properties and modes of action of SPCs
Thermal and fire properties of SPC-treated materials
Wood veneer and solid wood
Waterborne wood coatings
Veneered lightweight composites
Wood fiber-based materials
Conclusions and perspectives
References
Development of natural fiber-reinforced flame-retardant polymer composites
Introduction
Flame retardants
Flammability of polymers
Types of natural fibers
Properties of natural fibers
Modifications of natural fibers
Physical treatment methods
Chemical treatment methods
Development of natural fiber-reinforced flame-retardant polymer composites
Conclusions
References
Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant polymeric materials
Introduction
Vegetable oils
Flame-retardant mechanism
Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant polyurethane foam
Additive flame retardants
Reactive flame retardants
Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant phenolic foam
Vegetable oil-based flame-retardant epoxy resin
Other materials
Summary and perspectives
References
Progress in flame-retardant sustainable fiber/polymer composites
Introduction
Types and properties of natural fibers
Types of natural fibers
The chemical composition and mechanical properties of natural fibers
Properties of polymers
Natural fiber-reinforced flame-retardant polymer composites
Flax fibers
Flax fiber/poly(lactic acid) composites
Flax fiber/polyester resin composites
Jute fibers
Jute fiber/poly(lactic acid) composites
Jute fiber/polypropylene composites
Hemp fibers
Hemp fiber/high-density polyethylene composites
Hemp fiber/polypropylene composites
Hemp fiber/polyurethane composites
Kenaf fibers
Kenaf fiber/polypropylene composites
Kenaf fiber/epoxy composites
Sisal fibers
Sisal fiber/polypropylene composites
Sisal fiber/epoxy composites
Sisal fiber/high-density polyethylene composites
Bamboo fibers
Bamboo fiber/epoxy composites
Bamboo fiber/polyurethane composites
Other natural fibers
Conclusions and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Perspectives and challenges in using bio-based flame retardants
Perspectives on bio-based flame retardants
Nonedible bio-based feedstocks
Fire performance criteria
Life cycle assessment
Environmental and health impact
Design of less hazardous bio-based flame retardants
Sustainable phosphorus-based flame retardants
Flame-retardant surface treatments
Intrinsically flame-retardant bio-based epoxy thermosets
Flame retardancy of bio-based polyurethanes
Economic efficiency of bio-based flame retardants
Challenges in using bio-based flame retardants
Design of a ``good´´ bio-based flame retardant
Improvement of the flame retardancy of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites
Construction of fire-retardant coatings via layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly
Summary
References
Index
