This book, in two volumes, breathes fresh air empirically, methodologically, and theoretically into understanding the rich ceremonial lives, the philosophical-religious knowledge, and the impressive material feats and labor organization that distinguish Hopewell Indians of central Ohio and neighboring regions during the first centuries CE. The first volume defines cross-culturally, for the first time, the “ritual drama” as a genre of social performance. It reconstructs and compares parts of 14 such dramas that Hopewellian and other Woodland-period peoples performed in their ceremonial centers to help the soul-like essences of their deceased make the journey to an afterlife. The second volume builds and critiques ten formal cross-cultural models of “personhood” and the “self” and infers the nature of Scioto Hopewell people’s ontology. Two facets of their ontology are found to have been instrumental in their creating the intercommunity alliances and cooperation and gathering the labor required to construct their huge, multicommunity ceremonial centers: a relational, collective concept of the self defined by the ethical quality of the relationships one has with other beings, and a concept of multiple soul-like essences that compose a human being and can be harnessed strategically to create familial-like ethical bonds of cooperation among individuals and communities.
The archaeological reconstructions of Hopewellian ritual dramas and concepts of personhood and the self, and of Hopewell people’s strategic uses of these, are informed by three large surveys of historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ narratives, ideas, and rites about journeys to afterlives, the creatures who inhabit the cosmos, and the nature and functions of soul-like essences, coupled with rich contextual archaeological and bioarchaeological-taphonomic analyses. The bioarchaeological-taphonomic method of l’anthropologie de terrain, new to North American archaeology, is introduced and applied. In all, the research in this book vitalizes a vision of an anthropology committed to native logic and motivation and skeptical of the imposition of Western world views and categories onto native peoples.
Author(s): Christopher Carr
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 1589
City: Cham
Dedication
Preface
References Cited
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Rationale
1: Introduction
The Interplay of Ritual Dramas and Personhood
Chapters and Their Subjects
Important Debates
Conclusion
References Cited
2: Understanding Past Peoples by Listening
Listening to Indigenous Peoples’ Voices and the Misplacement of Theory
In This Book
On Human Motivation
In This Book
The Return to Culture
In This Book
Accepting and Giving Voice to Indigenous Religions
Pre–World War I
Post–World War I
The 1960s Onward: Setbacks and Contributions
The Twenty-First Century: Cosmology, the “Ontological Turn” Movement, and Its Limitations
In This Book
The Salience of Soul-like Essences and Spirits
Pre-World War I
Post-World War I to the Turn of the Millennium
The Twenty-First Century: Contributions
The Twenty-First Century: The “Ontological-Turn” Movement and Its Limitations
The Twenty-First Century: Body and Embodiment Studies and Their Limitations
In This Book
Conclusion
References Cited
3: Religion, Sacred, and Other Quandaries: Writing in Culture-Relevant Categories
Religion
Sacred
Supernatural
Belief
World View and Ethos
Other Problematic Terms and Concepts
Conclusion
References Cited
Part II: Ritual Dramas: Global Perspectives
4: The Notion of the “Ritual Drama” in Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspective
Defining Ritual Drama
Examples of Ritual Dramas
History of the Concept of the “Ritual Drama”
Lord Raglan
Marcel Mauss
Paul Radin
Robert Hall
James Brown
Myths Depicted in Artworks
Geertz and the Theatre State
The Theatre State and Cahokia
A Related Concept and Applications
Conclusion
References Cited
Part III: Bioarchaeological and Ethnohistorical Foundations for Reconstructing Hopewell Ritual Dramas
5: The Method of L’Anthropologie de Terrain and Its Potential for Investigating Ohio Hopewell Mortuary Records
The Role of Taphonomic Studies in Mortuary Archaeology
Historical Development and Methods of Anthropologie de Terrain or Field Anthropology
Range of Topics and Anthropological Questions Addressed Formally through Anthropologie de Terrain
Reconstructing the Details of Discrete Mortuary Practices
Documenting Extended or Multistage Mortuary Rituals
The Mobility of Living and Deceased Persons: Community Organization and Paleodemography
Articulation of Anthropologie de Terrain with Anthropological Theory
Conclusion
Scioto Hopewell Mortuary Practices, Their Taphonomy, and Their Potential for Involving Ritual Dramas
Impetus
Methods: Investigating Scioto Hopewell Ritual Drama Using Mortuary Taphonomy
Sample Selection and Adequacy
Photographic Quality and Image Enhancement
Primary Data and Contextual Data
Analyses of Images. Following the methods of anthropologie de terrain, the image of each inhumation was systematically analyzed for the skeleton’s completeness, element presence, and general preservation, the degree of articulation at all major jo
Utility of Field Notes
Attributing Causality to Missing Skeletal Elements. Not being able to observe the human remains in either the field during excavation or the laboratory posed a potential problem for inferring the processes that led to skeletal elements being missi
Duration of Excavation of a Skeleton or Cremation as a Possible Cause of Disturbance
Integrity of the Positions of Skeletons and Spatial Layouts of Cremations and Artifact Deposits
Conclusion
Conclusion
References Cited
6: Journeys to Afterlives in the Cosmologies of Postcontact Eastern Woodland and Plains Indians: Inventory, Frequencies, and Geographic Distributions of Elements in Oral Narratives
Previous Research
Example Journeys
Scope of Research and Methodology of Data Collection
Problem Domain
Research Universe
Source Materials and Searches
Coding Narratives
Presentation of Primary and Coded Data
Assessment of Sample for Adequacy and Representativeness
Research Questions
Methods of Analysis
Results: Elements of Journey Narratives and the Frequency and Geographic Distributional Patterns of Elements
Departure Time
Initial Direction, Horizontal and Vertical
Change in Direction of the Path to a Land of the Dead
Actual Location(s) of the Land of the Dead
Mode of Transportation
Milky Way Specified as the Path of Souls
Name of the Path
Nature of the Path from the Perspective of the Journeyer
Nature of the Path from the Perspective of the Nonjourneyer
Food Alright to Eat While on the Journey
Equipment and Animals
Objects Given to the Journeyer
Things the Living Must Do
Length of the Journey to the Afterlife
Is the Path Dark or Light from the Journeyer’s Perspective?
Does the Journeyer See Other Journeyers?
Is the Hand Constellation the Portal to an Afterlife?
Is There Any Portal to the Afterlife?
Is There a Rising and Falling Sky?
Obstacles and Challengers
Where Obstacles and Challengers Occur
Places Where Journeyers Become Stopped
Is There a Fork in the Road?
Who or What Is at the Fork in the Road?
Number of Paths
Others Met
Judges
Where Others Are Met
Warning to Avoid Brain Extractor
Taboos
Number of Lands of the Dead
Criteria by Which Souls Are Separated into Lands of the Dead
Criteria by Which Souls Are Separated into Lands of the Dead or Are Not Permitted to Enter a Land of the Dead, But Not in This Case
Nature of the Afterlife
Soul Information
Burial Orientation
Conclusion
Results: Spatial Co-occurrences of Journey Elements at Various Geographic Scales
Panregional Patterning
Localized Traditions
Conclusions
References Cited
7: Journeys to Afterlives in the Cosmologies of Postcontact Eastern Woodland and Plains Indians: Interwoven Elements, Their Regional Distinctions, and Meta-Narratives
Spatial Co-occurrences of Journey Elements within Supraregions and Regions
The Northern Woodlands
The Southeastern Woodlands
The Northern and Central Plains
Supraregional Pools of Journey Motifs in Total
Discussion
Spatial Co-occurrences of Journey Elements at Various Geographic Scales: Verifying Pools of Co-occurring Journey Traits as Narratives
Panregional Patterning
Supraregional Patterning
The Northern Woodlands and Its Regions
The Southeastern Woodlands and Its Regions
The Plains and Its Regions
Ties across Supraregions
Summary
Conclusion
Co-occurrences of Journey Elements across Tribes: Evaluation of Lankford’s “Path of Souls” Model
Overall Agreement of the Model with the Data
Large Differences of the Model from the Data
Problematic Correlations between Features of the Path of Souls Model and Celestial Phenomena
Internal Contradictions in the Path of Souls Model
Large Variations in the Data Not Represented by the Model
A Key Missing Element in the Model: Helpful Beings
Summary Evaluation and Perspective
Conclusions
References Cited
8: Underwater-Underground Creatures in the Cosmologies of Postcontact Eastern Woodland and Plains Indians as Told in Oral Narratives
Definitions
Underwater-Underground Creatures Portrayed by Hopewellian Peoples in Ohio
Bibliographic Sources and Kinds of Information Recorded
Underwater-Underground Creatures in Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Knowledge
Felines
Horned Serpents
Ukte′nas
Snakes and Serpents without Horns
Dragons
Piasas
Horned Alligators
Hornless Alligators
Fishes
Lizard-Like Composite Beings and Giant Lizards
Worms
Bulls
Bears
Uncommon Creatures
Water Spirits
Historical Continuity
Helpful and Harmful Natures of Underwater-Underground Creatures
The Distinctiveness of Underwater-Underground Creatures
Rare Exceptions
Implications for Recent Biases in Interpretations of Hopewellian Ceremonialism toward World Renewal
“Deliver Us from Evil”
Perspective
Scope and Value of the Critical Analysis
Approach and Flow of the Critical Analysis
Euro-American Ideas about Evil
The Imposition of European Christian Notions of Evil and Hell onto Woodland Indians Thought and Ceremony: The 20th Century
Woodland Indians of the Southeast through Charles Hudson’s Eyes
Contemporary Ojibwa according to Ruth Landes, Selwyn Dewdney, and Theresa Smith
The Thunderers Offer an Understanding of the Underwater-Underground Serpents
Influential Textbooks
The Subtle Tenacity of Western and Christian World View
The Imposition of European Christian Notions onto Woodland Indians’ Thought and Ceremony: The 17th through 19th Centuries
Early Primary Sources: The 17th and 18th Centuries
Syncretism in the 17th and 18th Centuries
The 19th Century: Schoolcraft
The Turn of the 19th Century: Hoffman
Conclusions and Practical Implications for Archaeologists
Conclusions
References Cited
9: The Ferocious Dog, Brain-Taker, the Keen-Eyed Owl, and Other Persons in the Cosmologies of Postcontact Eastern Woodland and Plains Indians as Told in Oral Narratives
The Ferocious Dog, the Dangerous Bridge and River, and Brain-Taker in Historic Woodland Indian Narratives of the Journey to an Afterlife
The Ferocious Dog
The Dangerous Bridge and River
Brain-Taker
The Relative Commonalities of the Dog, Bridge, and Brain-Taker Motifs and Their Association
Other Beings Associated with Death in Historic Woodland Indian Narratives and Thought
The Owl
The Whip-poor-will
The Turkey Vulture
Conclusion
References Cited
Part IV: Ritual Dramas of Scioto Hopewell Peoples
10: Souls in Flight: Ritual Dramas of Death Journeys through the Above Realm(s) of Scioto Hopewell Societies
Rediscovery and Overview of Unusual Arrangements of Human Remains and Artifacts in Scioto Hopewell Mounds
Description and Taphonomy of Nine Skeletons with Arms and Legs Semi-flexed and Six Contextualizing Skeletons 13
Anthropologie de Terrain of Fifteen Individuals
Descriptions of Two Baseline Hopewell Individuals Not in Unusual Positions
Baseline Radiographs of Pelvis/Femur Positioning and Expected Decomposition Pattern
Descriptions of Eleven Scioto Hopewell Individuals in Unusual Positions and Two Related Burials
Taphonomic Conclusions
Interpretation of the Nine Skeletons with Bird-Like Features
Initial Interpretations Considering Skeletal Positioning, Alone
Further Interpretation Considering the Mound 25 Spatial Context of Five Skeletons with Arms and/or Legs Semi-flexed
Coming Full Circle with Interpreting the Skeletons with Arms and/or Legs Semi-flexed: Meaning, Perspective, and Motivation
Was the Ceremony in Charnel House C a Ritual Drama?: Comparison to Theory about Ritual Dramas
Sociopolitical Implications
Future Directions: The Questions of Sacrifice and Personhood
Conclusion
References Cited
11: More Souls in Flight: Ritual Dramas of Death Journeys through the Above Realm(s) of Hopewellian and Adena Societies Beyond the Scioto
Continuity over Space: Bird-Persons in Middle Woodland Societies Beyond the Scioto Drainage
Northeastern Ohio
Western Pennsylvania
Illinois River Valley
Newark, Central Ohio
Continuity over Time: A Bird-Person in an Early Woodland Society
Cresap Mound
Comparison of Middle Woodland and Early Woodland Ritual Dramas about a Journey to an Afterlife
Implications for the Interregional “Hopewell Interaction Sphere” Concept
The Origin of the Shared Idea of Souls as Birds or Carried by Birds
Conclusion
References Cited
12: Mississippian, Effigy Mound Complex, and Georgia Woodland Bird-Persons and Bird Effigies: A Comparison to Adena and Hopewellian Cases
Discontinuity over Time: Mississippian Bird-Persons
Bird-Persons
Large Bird Effigies
Conclusion
Discontinuity over Time: Effigy Mound Builders
Continuity with Georgia Bird Effigies
Conclusion
References Cited
13: The Family and Community in Three Scioto Hopewell Ritual Dramas of Death Journeys
The Ritual Drama in the West Charnel Room under the Pricer Mound, Seip Earthwork
The West Charnel Room Context
The Multiple-Act Ritual Drama in the West Charnel Room
Manifesting the Primeval Cosmos
Enacting the Creation of the Earth Island and Its Inhabitants
Preparing the Dead for Cremation and Release of Their Free Souls
Decommissioning Ceremonial Equipment in the Burnt Offering
The Great Multiple Burial and the Journey of Free Souls to an Afterlife
The Ritual Drama’s Closing
Postscript
Summary
Contrast with the Ritual Drama in Charnel House C under Mound 25 in the Hopewell Site
Implications of the Seip-Pricer Journey Narrative for the Interpretation that Scioto Hopewellian Peoples Made War and that Isolated Human Skulls Were Trophies of War
Implications for Human Sacrifice
The Ritual Drama in the Far Western Charnel House under Mound 25 in the Hopewell Earthwork
A Broader Ritual and Historical Context: Relationship to the West Charnel Room E
Postscript
Summary
Content and Historical Relationships of the Ritual Dramas under Hopewell Mound 25’s Far Western Charnel House and Seip-Pricer’s West Charnel Room
A Peek at the Ritual Drama in Mounds 12 and 13 in the Mound City Earthwork
Summary
Historical Implications of the Charnel House 13 Death Journey Narrative
The Role of Ritual Drama in the Construction and Operation of the Tripartite Ceremonial Alliance
Conclusions
References Cited
14: Little Miami Hopewell Ritual Dramas of Death Journeys through the Lower Realm(s)
The Four Composite Creatures from the Turner Earthwork: Their Biological Identities
Contextualizing the Four Composite Creatures Biologically and Ethnohistorically
Archaeological Contexts of the Four Composite Creatures in the Turner Site
Meanings and Roles of the Four Composite Creatures for Miami Hopewell Peoples
Closely Complementary Interpretations
Alternative Interpretations
Motivations for Performing the Ritual Dramas about the Composite Creatures
Significance of the Reconstruction to Woodland Indian Culture and History
Implications for the Concept of an Interregional “Hopewell Interaction Sphere”
Implications for the View that World Renewal Was the Central Motivation in Hopewellian Mortuary Rites
Implications for the Interpretation of Hopewellian Mortuary Rites as Predominantly Political Theater of the Living
Wider Epistemological Issues
Conclusion
References Cited
15: The Genre of the Ritual Drama in Ohio Hopewellian Ceremonialism: A Comparative Summary
Features of Hopwellian Ritual Dramas in the Scioto-Paint Creek Area and Broader Ohio
Themes
Characters
Plots
Choreography
A Surprise: The Common Location of an Afterlife in a Watery and/or Dark Below Realm
What Ohio Hopewellian Ritual Dramas Were Not
Future Directions
References Cited
Part V: Personhood: Global Perspectives
16: Notions of Personhood and Being across Cultures: Models in the Social Sciences
The Person in Western Scholarly Theories
Dimensions of Western Scholarly Theories of Personhood
Summary: The Being
Theoretical Models of Being Derived from Ethnographic Data around the Globe
The Idealized Western Individual
The Relational Being
The Continuous Being
The Permeable Being
The Personnage
The Fixed Dividual
The Partible Dividual
The Fractal Being
Nested Beings
The Incipient Transpersonal Being
Conclusion
References Cited
Part VI: Ethnohistorical Foundations for Reconstructing Hopewellian Notions of Human Personhood
17: The Human Being as Multiple Soul-Like Essences in the Ontologies of Postcontact Eastern Woodland and Plains Indians: Inventory, Frequencies, and Geographic Distributions of Concepts in Oral Narratives
Human Essences and Terminology
Previous Research on Woodland and Plains Indians’ Concepts of Soul-like Essences
Example Narratives of Woodland and Plains Indians’ Concepts of Soul-Like Essences
Problem Domain and Research Questions
Methods and Source Materials
Phenomena of Interest
Research Variables
Research Universe
Source Materials and Searches
Organization and Presentation of Primary and Summarized Data
Assessment of Sample for Adequacy and Representativeness
Results: Frequency and Geographic Patterning of Soul Concepts
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Number of Souls in the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Locations of Souls in the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Number of Souls That Leave the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about Where Souls Leave the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about When Souls Leave the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Functions and Activities of Souls When Out of the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Functions and Activities of Souls When in the Body
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Qualities and Capacities of Souls after an Individual Has Died
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Ideas about the Qualities and Capacities of Souls While an Individual Is Alive
Variants and Their Frequencies
Geographic Distribution of Variants
Summary and Discussion
Conclusions
References Cited
18: The Human Being as Multiple Soul-Like Essences in the Ontologies of Postcontact Eastern Woodland and Plains Indians: Interwoven Concepts, Their Regional Distinctions, and Meta-Themes across Oral Narratives
Interrelationships among Variables
Numbers and Locations of Souls, and Their Fates at Death
Number of Souls and Their Fates at Death
Bodily Locations of Souls and Their Functions/Activities and Qualities
Meta-themes of Qualities and Functions of Souls
Soul Concepts Expressed in Variants across Multiple Variables
Soul Concepts Expressed in Frequent Variants within One Variable
Meta-Themes Distinct from Modern Anglo-American World View
Relative Frequencies and Geographic Expanses of Meta-themes
Additional Considerations
Regional “Traditions”
Interaction and Sharing of Ideas among Regions
Contradictions in Native Views about the Functions/Activities and Qualities of Souls
Circumstances in Which Souls Leave the Body
The Material and the Immaterial Constitutions of Souls
Gendering of Souls
Essences beyond Souls
Conclusions
References Cited
Part VII: Human Personhood Among Scioto Hopewell Peoples
19: Scioto Hopewell Relational Personhood and Social Cooperation: Unmasking the Projection of Western Competition onto Ritual Flamboyance and Paths to Social Complexity
The Modern, Competitive View of the Scioto Hopewell Archaeological Record
Intellectual Roots of the Competitive View of Scioto Hopewell Social Life
Cross-Cultural Variation in Conceptions of the Self
Further Clarification of the Collectivist Self and Relational Personhood: Personal Uniqueness
Cross-Cultural Studies of the Self
Collective Notions of the Self among Eastern Woodlands and Other Native North Americans
But Let Us Not Be Naïve: The Multiple Motivations of the Collective Self for Interpersonal Cooperation in Woodland Indian World View
Summation
Further Clarification of the Collective Self and Relational Personhood: The Lack of Domination-Subordination in Leader-Follower Relations among Woodland Indians
Leadership Development by Other than Self-Aggrandizement
Anglo-American Archaeological Practice
The Question and the Evidence to Consider
Decentralized, Complementary, Crosscutting, and Spatially Interspersed Organization of Social Units and Roles
The Context of Deposits within Charnel Houses of Allied Communities
The Social Groups That the Deposits Marked
Lack of Skeletal Evidence for Interpersonal Violence
The Re-evaluation of Isolated Human Skulls Once Thought to Be War Trophies
Scarcity of Elite Artworks That Depict Human War Trophies
Paucity of Elite Artifacts That Unambiguously Are Implements of War or Symbolized Implements of War
Ecology: Population, Subsistence, and Settlement Pattern
Competition for Mates?
Evaluation and Discussion
Conclusion
References Cited
20: The Scioto Hopewell Human Person as Multiple Soul-Like Essences: Society-Wide Commonalities and Age and Gender Distinctions
Previous Research
Anatomy of Human Major Arteries, Pulse Points, Joints and Other Places of Motion, and Natural Body Openings
Problem Domain and Research Questions
Number of Souls
Bodily Location(s) of Souls and Their Correspondences to Pulse Points, Joints, and Body Openings
Which Souls Exit the Body at Death, and What Are Their Locations of Exit?
Directions of Exit of Souls
The Necessity of Marking the Location(s) of Residence and/or Exit of Souls with Power Artifacts
Other Functions/Activities of Souls
Healing/Medicine Artifacts and Souls
Source Materials and Methods
Did Scioto Hopewellian Peoples Mark Anatomically Significant Human Body Parts during Burial?
Scioto Hopewell Concepts of Souls
Concepts of Souls Held by the Scioto Hopewell Population at Large
Data and Method
Numbers of Souls
Bodily Locations of Souls
Which Souls Exit the Body at Death, and What Are Their Locations of Exit?
Directions of Exit of Souls
The Necessity of Marking Location(s) of Residence and/or Exit of Souls with Power Artifacts
Other Functions/Activities and Qualities of Souls
Healing of Souls
Summary
Comparison to Ojibwa Midē′wiwin and Adena Concepts about Soul-Related Locations
Comparison to Historic Woodland and Plains Indians’ Soul Concepts by Language Family and Tribe
Concepts of Souls Held by the Scioto Hopewell Population Relative to an Individual’s Sex
Data and Method
Numbers of Souls
Bodily Locations of Souls
Which Souls Exit the Body at Death, and What Are Their Locations of Exit?
Directions of Exit of Souls
The Necessity of Marking Location(s) of Residence and/or Exit of Souls with Power Artifacts
Other Functions/Activities and Qualities of Souls
Healing of Souls
Summary
Concepts of Souls Held by the Scioto Hopewell Population Relative to an Individual’s Age
Data and Method
Numbers of Souls
Bodily Locations of Souls
Which Souls Exit the Body at Death, and What Are Their Locations of Exit?
Directions of Exit of Souls
The Necessity of Marking Location(s) of Residence and/or Exit of Souls with Power Artifacts
Other Functions/Activities and Qualities of Souls
Healing of Souls
Summary
Concepts of Souls Held by the Scioto Hopewell Population Relative to an Individual’s Age and Sex Together
Conclusions
References Cited
21: Ohio Hopewell Human Persons as Multiple Soul-Like Essences: Intercommunity and Regional Distinctions
Source Materials and Methods
Comparison of Soul Concepts Held by Different Local Communities in the Scioto Region
Background
Methods
Results
Numbers of Souls
Bodily Locations of Souls
Which Souls Exit the Body at Death, and What Are Their Locations of Exit?
Directions of Exit of Souls
The Necessity of Marking Location(s) of Residence and/or Exit of Souls with Power Artifacts
Other Functions/Activities and Qualities of Souls
Healing of Souls
Summary
Implications of the Findings for the Nature of Intercommunity Alliances
Comparison of Soul Concepts Held by Hopewellian Peoples in Regions beyond the Central Scioto
Background
Methods
Results
Numbers of Souls
Bodily Locations of Souls
Which Souls Exit the Body at Death, and What Are Their Locations of Exit?
Directions of Exit of Souls
The Necessity of Marking Location(s) of Residence and/or Exit of Souls with Power Artifacts
Other Functions/Activities and Qualities of Souls
Healing of Souls
Summary
Implications of the Findings for Ideological Variation within the Hopewell Interaction Sphere
Conclusion
References Cited
22: Nested Personhood, Masking, and the Question of Personnages in Scioto Hopewell, Adena, and Glacial Kame Societies
Nested Personhood
Dimensions of Masking Experience
The Panhuman Potential for Conceiving of Nested Persons
States of Being That Are Not Nested Persons
The Fixed Dividual
Shamanic Merging and Becoming
Metamorphosis: Outright and Through Revealment of a Person Nested Within
Possession
Associating and Mixing Souls of the Dead
Bundles and Packs
Scioto Hopewell, Adena, and Glacial Kame Nested Persons and Not: Examples in Artworks and Ceremonial Paraphernalia
An Introductory Example
Merged Beings and Becoming
Outright Metamorphosis
A Nested Person
Probable Nested-to-Merged Persons
A Complex Image Depicting Multiple Forms of Personhood
Summary and Discussion
Scioto Hopewell Fixed Dividuals and Nested Persons Made by Arranging Artifacts and Human Remains in Mortuary Settings: Basic Considerations
The Personhood of Copper and Copper Artifacts
The Personhood of Mica Mirrors
The Personhood of Human Skeletal and Cremation Remains
Conclusions
Scioto Hopewell Examples of Fixed Dividuals and Nested Persons Made by Arranging Copper Artifacts and/or Human Remains in Mortuary Settings
The Integrity of the Arrangements of Human Remains
An Introductory Example: A Fixed Dividual
A Mythic Bird and Nested Person in a Ritual Drama
Nested Persons and Fixed Dividuals Constructed from Cremated and Partially Cremated Human Remains
Faces with Copper Earspool Eyes
Faces and Bodies with Mica Features
Heads and Elaborate Headdresses
Partial Cremations: Rearranged Skeletal Elements and Additions of Artifacts
Summary
Summary and Discussion
The Notion of the Personnage: No Material Evidence in Scioto Hopewell Societies
Conclusions
References Cited
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Figure Credits
List of Appendices Online
(https://link.springer.com)
Author Index
Subject Index
