Balancing Greenhouse Gas Budgets: Accounting for Natural and Anthropogenic Flows of CO2 and other Trace Gases

Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Dedication
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Balancing greenhouse gas sources and sinks: Inventories, budgets, and climate policy
The human perturbation of the carbon cycle and other biogeochemical cycles
Inventories of anthropogenic GHG: The foundation of the Kyoto protocol and the Paris agreement
GHG budgets: Constraining GHG sources and sinks
Supporting the global stocktake and the net-zero emissions policy goals
A new generation of technologies and observations to constrain global and regional GHG budgets
Extending the carbon budget and accounting frameworks to meet broader policy information needs
Acknowledgment
References
CO2 emissions from energy systems and industrial processes: Inventories from data- and proxy-driven approaches
Introduction
Overview of inventory approaches
Emission estimation from energy statistics
Activity data
Emission factors
Spatial and temporal emission disaggregation
Other approaches
Uncertainty
Emission estimation
Uncertainty in AD
Uncertainty in EF
Spatial and temporal modeling
Other sources of uncertainty
Examples of emission estimates and products
IEA
bp
CDIAC-FF
EDGAR
Global carbon project
GCP gridded fossil emissions dataset
Summary
References
Further reading
Bottom-up approaches for estimating terrestrial GHG budgets: Bookkeeping, process-based modeling, and data-dri ...
Introduction to bottom-up (BU) approaches
Definitions and discrepancies
Bottom-up methodologies
Stock-change versus flux-based accounting
Bookkeeping methodology
Process-based methodology
Data-driven methodologies
Relevance to Stock-Change and flux-based accounting
Uncertainties
Comparisons between approaches
Conclusions
References
Top-down approaches
Introduction
Measurements of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Ground-based measurements
Satellite measurements
Atmospheric modeling
Modeling atmospheric transport and chemistry
Types of atmospheric transport models
Relating surface fluxes to atmospheric mixing ratios
Inversion concepts
Bayes theorem and its application to optimizing fluxes
Introduction to different optimization methods
Kalman filters
Gradient methods
Ensemble methods
Markov chain Monte Carlo
Ensemble Kalman filter
Ensembles for estimating the posterior uncertainty
Estimating prior flux and observation uncertainties
Prior error covariance
Observation error covariance
Assessing choices for the error covariance matrices
Boundary conditions
Application to land biosphere CO2 fluxes (NEE)
Application to fossil fuel emissions of CO2
Application to CH4 fluxes
Application to other GHG fluxes
Sources of error
Transport errors
Aggregation errors
Validation of flux estimates from inversions
Summary and conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Current knowledge and uncertainties associated with the Arctic greenhouse gas budget
Introduction and background: Arctic ecosystems
Methodologies
Components of the greenhouse gas budget of terrestrial arctic ecosystems
Methodologies for flux estimation in the Arctic
Chamber measurements and incubation studies in arctic terrestrial environments
Arctic micrometeorological eddy covariance measurements in terrestrial ecosystems
Concentration measurements from aircraft and tall towers
Arctic freshwater/fluvial flux (DOC/DIC/POC) measurements
Arctic marine/oceanic fluxes
Top-down and bottom-up methods for estimating carbon fluxes in the Arctic
Terrestrial ecosystem and land surface models in the Arctic
Review of Arctic GHG estimates by sector and associated key uncertainties
Lateral flow: Rivers and streams
Nitrous oxide
Uncertainty and reducing uncertainty
Perspective and future opportunities
The current status of the GHG budget of the arctic terrestrial and marine environments
Future perspectives: Improving the Arctic GHG budget
Acknowledgments
References
Boreal forests
Carbon in boreal forests
The major components of the boreal forest carbon budget
Estimating carbon stocks and fluxes in boreal forests
Sampling boreal forest carbon stocks
Sampling boreal ecosystem carbon fluxes
Carbon emissions from wildfire
Carbon in the aquatic system
Carbon accounting in boreal forests
National forest inventories
Carbon in harvested wood products
Managed vs unmanaged forest lands
The role of remote sensing in boreal forest inventories
Regional-scale modeling
Synthesis
Acknowledgments
References
State of science in carbon budget assessments for temperate forests and grasslands
Introduction and background
Methodologies for flux estimations in temperate regions
Net carbon flux estimations
Carbon stock changes
Upscaling of eddy covariance flux measurements
Terrestrial biosphere models
Atmospheric inversions
Components of the carbon budget in temperate regions
Land-use changes and regrowth
Fluvial flux
CO2 evasion from river and lake
Fire emissions
Biogenic volatile organic compounds
Review of the carbon budget of temperate forests and grasslands
Adjustments for the carbon budget
Carbon budget assessment
Uncertainties in carbon fluxes
Reliability and uncertainty in observational methods
Uncertainty in components of the temperate carbon budget
Perspective and future opportunities for policy decision-making
Progress over past decades
Future perspective
Toward policy-driven carbon budgets
References
Tropical ecosystem greenhouse gas accounting
Introduction and background: Tropical ecosystems
General description
Understanding changes in carbon cycling and storage
GHG budget in the tropics
Components of the greenhouse gas budget tropical ecosystems
Methodologies for flux estimation in the tropics
Chamber measurements in tropical terrestrial environments
Micrometeorological eddy covariance measurements in terrestrial ecosystems
Concentration measurements from aircraft and tall towers
Freshwater/fluvial flux (DOC/DIC/POC) measurements
Top-down and bottom-up methods for estimating carbon fluxes in the tropics (modeling)
Terrestrial ecosystem and land surface processes in the tropics
GHG emissions from tropical forest deforestation and degradation
Review of tropical GHG estimates by sector
Uncertainty and reducing uncertainty
Perspective and future opportunities
Acknowledgments
References
Semiarid ecosystems
Introduction and background: Global drylands and semiarid ecosystems
Ecology
Threats
Methodologies
Components of the greenhouse gas budget of semiarid ecosystems
In situ based methodologies for flux estimation in semiarid ecosystems
Atmospheric inversion monitoring of semiarid ecosystems
Remote sensing
Land surface modeling of semiarid ecosystems
Soil erosion
Future perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
Urban environments and trans-boundary linkages
From science to policy for urban carbon accounting
Four carbon accounting approaches for individual cities
Purely territorial carbon accounting approaches
Community-wide trans-boundary infrastructure supply-chain carbon footprinting approaches
Consumption-based carbon footprinting approaches
Total community-wide carbon footprinting
Accounting biogenic carbon from land use and land-use change in individual cities
From individual cities to initiatives for all urban areas carbon accounting
References
Agricultural systems
Introduction
Carbon stocks, flows, and emissions in agricultural systems
Cropping systems
Livestock systems
Lateral transport and supply chains
Methodologies
Inventories of agricultural soil C stock changes, N2O and CH4 emissions
Inventories of emissions from livestock systems
Lateral transport and supply chains
Top-down inversion methods
Improving regional GHG inventories for agriculture
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Greenhouse gas balances in coastal ecosystems: Current challenges in ``blue carbon´´ estimation and significa ...
Background
What limits traditional AFOLU estimation approaches in coastal ecosystems?
IPCC guidelines for national-scale estimation of coastal wetland carbon
Improving application of the IPCC NGGI guidelines in the United States
Implications for the scale of GHG estimation
Implications for carbon cycle science on coastlines
Final thoughts
Acknowledgments
References
Ocean systems
Summary
The ocean as a sink/source of GHGs to the atmosphere
Preindustrial (or natural) carbon budget based on inverse estimates
Anthropogenic perturbations and the contemporary global carbon sink
Regional marine carbon sink
Storage of anthropogenic carbon
Variability of the ocean GHG uptake
Future outlook
References
Applications of top-down methods to anthropogenic GHG emission estimation
Introduction
Using inverse estimates of non-CO2 GHG emissions in national reporting
Methane emissions detection at facility and basin scale
Large point source emission monitoring using satellite observations
Precision and sampling requirements for future satellite observations
Developing global high-resolution transport modeling capability for analysis of the satellite and ground-based observa ...
Developing high-resolution emission inventories for inverse modeling
Summary
References
Earth system perspective
Introduction and background: What is an earth system model?
Carbon cycle modeling in the context of earth system models
Data assimilation in earth system models
Data assimilation related to numerical weather prediction
Data assimilation related to land and ocean carbon cycle
Data assimilation related to atmospheric carbon observations
Future direction for carbon cycle science, earth system modeling, and DA applications
References
Index
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