Autonomous Vessels in Maritime Affairs: Law and Governance Implications

Acknowledgments
Contents
Notes on Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Introduction to Autonomous Vessels in Maritime Affairs: Law & Governance Implications
References
Part I Setting the Scene
2 Innovate or Fade—Introducing Ocean Innovation Diplomacy to the Maritime Sector
1 Introduction
2 Ocean Innovation Diplomacy, What Is It?
3 Is Ocean Diplomacy for All?
4 Technology Innovation Readiness Level (TRL)
5 Ocean Innovation Diplomacy: The Reality
6 Is Innovation Diplomacy the Same Throughout the World?
7 Conclusions
References
3 Evolution of IMO’s MASS: Through the Prism of the Chair
1 Introduction
2 Setting the Scene: Assembling the MASS Working Group
3 State-of-Play: Stages of Discussion
3.1 The 99th Session of the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC 99) (MSC 99/WP.9)
3.2 The 100th Session of the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC 100) (MSC 100/WP.8)
3.3 The 101st Session of the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC 101) (MSC 101/WP.8)
3.3.1 The Regulatory Scoping Exercise
3.3.2 Interim Guidelines for MASS Trials
3.4 Intersessional Working Group on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (ISWG/MASS 1/6)
3.5 The 103rd Session of the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC 103) (MSC 103/WP.8)
4 The Mandate: Striking a Balance
5 What Has Been Achieved?
5.1 Finalization
5.1.1 Maritime Safety Committee (MSC)
5.1.2 The Legal Committee
5.1.3 The Facilitation Committee
5.2 Life After Finalization
5.2.1 Mapping out the Beginning
5.2.2 Joint Efforts
5.2.3 MASS Through Correspondence
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Part II Naval Warfare & Security
4 Advent of a New Era in Naval Warfare: Autonomous and Unmanned Systems
1 Introduction
2 Why Unmanned Systems?
3 Unmanned Maritime Systems Mission Sets
4 Status of Unmanned Maritime Systems
4.1 Definition of Ship or Vessel
4.2 IMO and Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships
4.3 Definition of Warship
5 Sovereign Immunity
6 Navigational Rights and Freedom
7 Conclusions
References
5 Maritime Security in the Age of Autonomous Ships
1 A Game Changer for the Commission of Crimes at Sea
2 A Watershed Moment for Maritime Security Law
2.1 Terminology
2.2 The Notion of Ship
2.3 Offense Definitions
2.4 Communication and Interaction
2.5 Boarding, Verification of Nationality and Search
2.6 Arrest and Prosecution of Suspects
3 The Regulatory Way Ahead
References
Part III Safety & Seaworthiness
6 Designing Norms for Autonomous Ships: The Obligation to Call for Help and the Duty to Save Life in Danger at Sea
1 Introduction
2 The Legal Obligation to Call for Help
2.1 Is the Obligation to Call for Help a Duty?
2.2 Bailment
2.3 Application to Autonomous and Remotely Controlled Ships
2.4 The Associated Obligation to Deviate to Protect the Cargo
2.4.1 Is the Obligation Exempted Under the Carriage of Goods by Sea Conventions?
2.4.2 The Hamburg Rules
2.4.3 The Hague and Hague–Visby Rules
3 The Duty to Render Assistance
3.1 The Duty to Render Assistance Under International Law
3.2 The Legal Duty to Render Assistance After 1910
3.3 Should There Be a Legal Duty to Render Assistance When There Is No Master on Board?
3.4 Would New Ships Be Able to Render Assistance?
4 Conclusions
References
7 Safety and Seaworthiness Challenges of MASS in the Shipping and Port Sector
1 Introduction
2 International Regulatory Framework of Safety and Seaworthiness
2.1 Flag State
2.2 Port State
3 COLREGs—Prevention of Collisions
4 Seaworthiness Challenges in Respect of MASS in Litigation
5 Conclusion
References
8 How to Ensure Safe Navigation: Navigation Safety Regulation in MASS
1 Introduction
2 The Regulatory Setting
2.1 MASS as Technological Artefacts
2.2 How to Regulate MASSs Technological Artefacts?
2.3 The Regulatory Options
3 Rules-Based Approaches to ANS Safety
3.1 Rules-Based Technical Regulation
3.2 Challenges and Pitfalls
3.3 Pockets for Rules-Based Regulation Will Remain
4 Regulating ANS Performance
4.1 Performance-Based Regulation
4.2 Designing Performance-Based ANS Standards
4.3 Designing the Testing Regime
4.4 Parameters for Simulation Environments
5 Conclusion
References
Part IV Global Environmental Change
9 Autonomous Vessels in the Era of Global Environmental Change
1 Introduction
2 The Role of Digitalization and Advanced Automation in shipping—A Framework for Sustainable Operations
3 International Regulatory Framework
4 Work of the IMO on Reducing GHG Emissions in Shipping
5 US Contributions Related to GHG
6 The Role of Smart Autonomy to Support Decarbonization
7 US Autonomy Vessel State-Of-Play
8 Conclusions: Tying the Threads Toward a Future with Smart Autonomy
References
Part V Autonomous Passenger Transportation
10 Autonomous Urban Passenger Ferries—A New Mobility Mode in Need of Appropriate Regulation
1 Introduction
2 Urban, Autonomous Waterborne Mobility—An Emerging Segment
3 Relevant Areas of Regulation/Governance
4 Levels of Automation and Vessel Functions
5 Trustworthiness and Assurance
6 Case Study: Urban Shortcuts with Small, Electric Passenger Ferries
7 Conclusions
References
11 New Design Solutions and Procedures for Ensuring Meaningful Human Control and Interaction with Autonomy: Automated Ferries in Profile
1 Introduction
2 Relevant Rules and Regulations
3 Method
3.1 Gap Analysis
3.2 Development of Scenarios
3.3 Concurrent Task Analysis
3.4 Developing Operational Procedures
4 Use-Case—Highly Automated Local Passenger Ferry
5 Results
5.1 Gap Analysis
5.2 Developing Operational Procedure
6 Discussions
7 Conclusions
References
Part VI Liability & Insurance
12 Autonomy, Autonomous Shipping and Coastal Authorities’ Concerns
1 Introduction
2 Safety of Merchant Fairways
3 Situational Awareness is of Cardinal Importance
4 Technical Challenges
5 Coastal State’s Legislative Challenges
6 Traditional Indemnity Regime is Challenged
7 System Operability and Administrative Burden
8 Conclusions
References
13 Remote Control and Remote Risk of Liability?—Vicarious Liability for Remotely Controlled Vessels in Scandinavian and English Law
1 Introduction
2 The SBC as an Employee
3 The SBC as an Independent Contractor
4 Recourse Actions
5 Conclusions
References
14 Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS): Precarious Legal Position of the Shore-Based Remote Controller
1 Introduction
1.1 The Title
1.2 Purpose
2 MASS in Motion
2.1 Evolution of MASS
2.2 The Master and the Controller
3 Collision Liability in the Realm of MASS
3.1 Introductory Remarks
3.2 COLREGS, 1972 and MASS
3.3 Collision Liability and MASS
3.4 Correlation Between the Civil and Penal Liability Regimes
4 Conclusion
References
15 Navigating the Turbulent Waters of Liability: Making the Case for the Application of Risk-Management-Based Liability Approach to Autonomous Vessels
1 Introduction
2 Conceptual Framework
2.1 Characteristic of Autonomy
2.2 Concept of Effectiveness
3 Challenges: Current Legal Regime
3.1 Regulatory Framework
3.2 Existing Legal Mechanisms
4 Beyond the Challenges: Overcoming the Shortcomings of the Current Legal Regime
References
16 Insurance of Marine Autonomous Surface Ships: Risk Allocation, Seaworthiness and Technological Challenges from an Underwriter’s Perspective
1 Introduction
2 The Nature of MASS Risks as a Question of Marine Insurance
2.1 The Duty of Fair Presentation in Relation to MASS Underwriting and Cyber Risk Management
2.2 Contract Terms in the Marine Insurance Contract: The Paramount Concept of Seaworthiness
3 Is Traditional Marine Insurance Cover Sufficient to Address MASS Risks?
3.1 Analysis of Marine Shipbuilding Insurance Cover in Relation to MASS
3.2 Hull & Machinery Insurance
3.3 Cargo Insurance
3.4 P&I Insurance Cover
4 Conclusions
References
Part VII Selected National & Regional Developments
17 Selected Industry Issues Regarding Autonomous Vessels: The Canadian Perspective
1 Introduction
2 The Emergence of Autonomous Vessels in Canada and Selected Issues Surrounding Them
3 Smart Ports: The Canadian Case
4 Conclusions
References
18 The Societal Impacts of Autonomous Ships: The Norwegian Perspective
1 Introduction
2 Autonomous Shipping—The Norwegian Perspective
2.1 Some Relevant Attributes of Autonomous Ships
2.2 Some Norwegian Examples
2.2.1 Yara Birkeland and ASKO—Reducing the Impact of Truck Transport
2.2.2 Passenger and Car Transport in Rural areas—The Need for On-Demand Operations
2.2.3 Cargo Transport in Urban and Rural Areas—Low Real-Estate Impact
2.2.4 Passenger Transport in Inner-City Areas—Flexible and Low Cost
3 Societal Impacts and How to Measure It
3.1 Defining Societal Impact
3.2 Measuring Societal Impact
4 Main Societal Effects of Autonomous Shipping
4.1 Improved Working Conditions
4.2 New Types of Jobs and Fewer Jobs
4.3 Advanced Ship Equipment
4.4 Less Terminal Space
4.5 Improved Mobility
4.6 Flexible Sea Transport
4.7 Resilient Sea Transport Systems
4.8 Less Truck Transports
4.9 Lower Energy Consumption
4.10 Decarbonization
4.11 Less Harmful Emissions
4.12 Safety at Sea
4.13 Better Regulated Shipping
5 Conclusions
References
19 US Perspectives on Regulating Maritime Autonomy
1 Introduction
2 Understanding the US Regulatory Landscape
2.1 US Regulation of Autonomy
2.2 US Regulation of Vessels
3 US Regulatory Approaches to Autonomous Vessels
3.1 Conflicts with Existing Regulation
3.2 Other Barriers to Autonomous Vessel Deployment
3.3 Threats to and from Autonomous Vessels
4 Conclusions
References
Part VIII Tying the Threads
20 Autonomous Ships: Where Is It Going from Here?
1 Introduction
2 Technological Issues
2.1 Simplifying Vessel Design
2.2 Sensors
2.3 Controls
2.4 Security
3 Technological Progress
4 Societal Issues
5 Legal Issues
5.1 Global Rules
5.2 National and Local Rules
6 So, Where Is this Going from Here?
References