Atmospheric Remote Sensing: Principles and Applications

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CONTENTS
Contributors
Chapter 1 - Composition and thermal structure of the earth’s atmosphere
1.1 Atmosphere
1.2 Vertical temperature structure and nomenclature of the earth’s atmosphere
1.2.1 Troposphere
1.2.2 Stratosphere
1.2.3 Mesosphere
1.2.4 Thermosphere
1.3 Basics climatology of tropospheric and stratospheric region and inter-hemispheric coupling
1.3.1 Hadley cell
1.3.2 Ferrel cell
1.3.3 Polar cell
1.4 Vertical variation of atmospheric temperature in the troposphere
1.5 Seasonal variation of tropospheric and stratospheric temperature in the equatorial regions (5° N–5° S)
1.6 Interannual variation of tropospheric and stratospheric temperature and its linkage with QBO and ENSO
1.7 Global positioning system (GPS) and radio occultation (RO) technique for the temperature observation
1.8 Conclusion
Data availability statement
References
Chapter 2 - Retrieval of aerosol optical depth from satellite observations: Accuracy assessment, limitations, and usage re ...
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Aerosol optical properties
2.3 Satellite-based remote sensing instruments for aerosol monitoring
2.4 Satellite-based aerosol retrieval algorithms
2.4.1 Overview of operational retrieval algorithms
2.4.1.1 Dark Target (DT) algorithm
2.4.1.2 Deep Blue (DB) algorithm
2.4.1.3 Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC)
2.4.1.4 MISR aerosol retrieval algorithm
2.4.1.5 OMI aerosol retrieval algorithm
2.4.2 Uncertainty evaluation of aerosol retrieval products
2.5 Case study of AOD retrieval and accuracy assessment over South Asia (SA)
2.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 - Global Navigation Satellite Systems and their applications in remote sensing of atmosphere
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Performance of the GNSS
3.3 Technical concepts of GPS
3.3.1 The space segment
3.3.2 The control segment
3.3.3 The user segment
3.4 Receivers and GPS antenna
3.5 GNSS limitations
3.6 GPS/GNSS meteorology
3.7 Estimating ZWD and water vapor using GNSS
3.8 Summary
References
Chapter 4 - Estimation of ionospheric total electron content (TEC) from GNSS observations
4.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Ionospheric layers
4.1.3 Ionosphere and its effects on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
4.2 Estimation of ionospheric total electron content
4.2.1 TEC calculation from GPS observations
4.2.2 Cycle slip correction
4.2.3 TEC leveling
4.2.4 Vertical TEC conversion
4.2.5 Receiver and satellite differential code biases (DCBs)
4.3 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 5 - Remote sensing data extraction and inversion techniques: A review
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Remote sensing data extraction
5.2.1 Classification
5.3 Supervised classification
5.3.1 Minimum-distance-to-mean classifier
5.3.2 Parallelepiped classifier
5.3.3 Maximum likelihood classifier
5.4 Unsupervised classification
5.4.1 K-mean
5.4.2 ISODATA
5.5 Hybrid classification and artificial neural networks (ANNs)
5.6 Elements of visual image interpretation
5.7 Band/spectral rationing
5.8 Principal component analysis (PCA)
5.9 Normalized difference index
5.10 File format
5.11 Geometric correction
5.12 Radiometric correction
5.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 - Appraisal of radiative transfer model 6SV for atmospheric correction of multispectral satellite image towards ...
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Study area
6.3 Datasets and methodology
6.3.1 Landsat 8
6.3.2 Second simulation of satellite signal in the solar spectrum-vector (6SV)
6.3.3 Normalized difference vegetation index
6.3.4 Land surface temperature retrieval
6.3.5 Performance analysis
6.4 Result and discussions
6.4.1 6SV output for atmospheric correction
6.4.2 LST retrieval using Landsat 8 OLI
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 - Spatio-temporal variation of biomass burning fires over Indian region using satellite data
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Datasets and methodology
7.3 Results
7.3.1 Spatial and seasonal variation of fire points over India
7.3.2 Inter annual variations of active fire occurrences
7.3.3 State level analysis of fire counts over Indian region
7.3.4 Identification of fire hotspot regions
7.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 8 - Identification of different aerosol types over a semi-arid location in southern peninsular India retrieved fro ...
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Instrument and observational site
8.2.1 CALIPSO
8.2.2 HYSPLIT, MERRA-2 winds, and MODIS fire counts
8.2.3 Observational site
8.3 Results and discussion
8.3.1 Intra-season variability in tropospheric columnar aerosol optical depth
8.3.2 Seasonal variation of different aerosol subtypes
8.3.3 Percentage contribution of aerosol top layer heights
8.3.4 Intra-seasonal variation of the aerosol extinction coefficient
8.3.5 Types of air masses and their effects on aerosol characteristics
8.3.6 Fire count and MERRA-2 winds for source identification
8.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9 - Remote Sensing of Cloudiness: Challenges and Way Forward
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Comparative assessment of CF datasets
9.2.1 Resolution effect
9.2.2 View-angle effect
9.2.3 Climatology of height-stratified CF
9.2.4 Diurnal cycle of CF
9.3 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 10 - Overview of aerosol–cloud interactions over Indian summer monsoon region using remote sensing observations
10.1 Climatic effects of atmospheric aerosols
10.2 Aerosol–cloud interaction studies over the Indian subcontinent
10.3 Indian summer monsoon season
10.4 Cloud radiative forcing over the Indian summer monsoon region
10.5 Physical mechanisms of aerosol-induced changes in cloud radiative effects
10.6 Critical knowledge gaps and recommendations
References
Chapter 11 - Aerosol loading over the Northern Indian Ocean using space-borne measurements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Space-borne observation of aerosols and their transportation
11.2.1 Moderate resolution imaging spectro-radiometer (MODIS)
11.2.2 Ozone monitoring instrument (OMI)
11.2.3 Cloud-Aerosol Lidar Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO)
11.3 Spatio-temporal variation of aerosol over the Northern Indian Ocean
11.4 Vertical distribution and subtypes of atmospheric aerosol over the Northern Indian Ocean
11.5 Long-range transportation of atmospheric aerosol over the Northern Indian Ocean
11.6 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 12 - Balloon-Based Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Balloon platforms for atmospheric measurements
12.2.1 Types of balloon sounding
12.3 Different scientific balloon systems and their use
12.3.1 Open zero-pressure balloons
12.3.2 Light, small, zero-pressure balloons
12.3.3 Tethered balloons
12.3.4 Super-pressure balloons
12.3.5 Ultra-long-duration balloons (ULDB)
12.3.6 Infra-red montgolfier (MIR)
12.4 Balloon-borne campaigns to study atmosphere
12.4.1 Description of the BATAL campaigns
12.4.2 Types of balloon flight use in BATAL campaign
12.4.3 Ground-based and modeling support
12.4.4 Findings of BATAL campaign
12.5 Summary and conclusion
References
Chapter 13 - Vertical distribution of atmospheric brown clouds using Lidar remote sensing over Indian region
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Theoretical background of light detection and ranging
13.3 Vertical distribution of ABCs over India
13.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14 - Application of remote sensing to study forest fires
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Evolution of fire detection techniques
14.3 Remote sensing
14.3.1 Thermal remote sensing
14.4 Satellites and sensors for forest fire applications
14.4.1 Landsat
14.4.2 Sentinel-2
14.4.3 Sentinel-3
14.4.4 Vegetation-based fire applications
14.4.5 MODIS
14.4.6 Visible infrared imaging radiometer suite (VIIRS)
14.4.7 Soil moisture active passive (SMAP)
14.4.8 EO-1 hyperion
14.4.9 Advanced very high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR)
14.5 Ground-based fire monitoring system
14.6 Fire assessment
14.7 Burnt area and burn severity mapping (postfire)
14.8 Mapping postfire vegetative growth
14.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15 - Study of the atmospheric and ionospheric phenomenon using GPS-based remote sensing technique
15.1 Introduction to global positioning system
15.1.1 Error sources in GPS signals
15.1.2 Total electron content and water vapor measurements using GPS
15.2 Study of ionospheric phenomena using GPS
15.2.1 Response to space weather
15.2.2 Solar flares (SFs)
15.2.3 Response to solar eclipse
15.2.4 Response to earthquakes
15.2.5 Response to thunderstorms
15.2.6 Response to cyclones
15.3 Study of atmospheric phenomena using GPS
15.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16 - Low-latitude upper atmosphere remote sensing using very low frequency (VLF) waves
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Remote sensing of D-region of ionosphere using narrowband VLF waves
16.2.1 Quiescent D-region ionosphere
16.2.2 Geomagnetic storms and D-region ionosphere
16.2.3 Solar flares and D-region ionosphere
16.2.4 Solar eclipse and D-region ionosphere
16.2.5 Earthquakes and D-region ionosphere
16.3 Remote sensing using broadband VLF waves
16.3.1 Tweeks and D-region ionospheric parameters
16.3.2 Whistlers and ionospheric/magnetospheric parameters
16.3.3 VLF emissions
16.4 Summary
16.5 Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 17 - Remote Sensing of Ionospheric Irregularities
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 F-region irregularities
17.1.2 E-region irregularities
17.2 Techniques to study ionospheric irregularities
17.2.1 Ground-based techniques
17.2.1.1 Ionospheric scintillations
17.2.1.1.1 Very high frequency (VHF) scintillations
17.2.1.1.2 GPS scintillation
17.2.2 Satellite-based techniques
17.2.2.1 Defense meteorological satellite program (DMSP)
17.2.2.2 Stretched Rohini satellite series (SROSS-C2)
17.2.2.3 Communication navigation outage forecasting system (C/NOFS)
17.2.2.3.1 The planar Langmuir probe (PLP)
17.2.2.3.2 The ion velocity meter (IVM)
17.2.2.3.3 The neutral wind meter (NWM)
17.2.2.3.4 The vector electric field instrument (VEFI)
17.2.2.3.5 The coherent electromagnetic radio tomography (CERTO)
17.2.2.3.6 The C/NOFS occultation receiver for ionospheric sensing and specification (CORISS)
17.3 Characteristics of ionospheric irregularities over Indian region
17.3.1 Occurrence characteristics
17.3.2 Scale size
17.3.3 Spectral analysis
17.3.4 Effect of solar activity
17.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18 - Characteristics of tropical cyclones through remote sensing-based observational platforms
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Satellite remote sensing application
18.2.1 Atmospheric and ocean characteristics observed through satellites
18.2.1.1 Meteorological characteristics observed through satellites
18.2.1.2 Ocean characteristics observed through satellites
18.2.2 Structural and radial characteristics of tropical cyclones
18.2.3 Numerical modeling approach using satellite observations
18.3 Radar observations and associated techniques
18.3.1 Observational aspects
18.3.2 Modeling-based analysis using radar observations
18.4 Tropical cyclone characteristics through Lidar observations
18.5 Aircraft and other remote sensing observations and tools
18.5.1 Aircraft platforms
18.5.2 Other remote sensing platforms
18.6 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 19 - Significance of remote sensing in tropical cyclone prediction and disaster management: Indian perspective
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Various applications of remote sensing techniques for cyclone track and intensity prediction
19.3 Data and methodology
19.4 Remote sensing of the VSCS “Phailin”
19.5 Results and discussion
19.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 20 - Dust storm characteristics over Indo-Gangetic basin through satellite remote sensing
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Data and methodology
20.2.1 AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET)
20.2.2 Moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS)
20.2.3 Cloud-aerosol LIDAR and infrared pathfinder satellite observation (CALIPSO)
20.2.4 Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT)
20.3 Characteristics of dust particles
20.3.1 Physical and optical characteristics
20.3.1.1 Aerosol optical depth (AOD) and angstrom exponent (AE)
20.3.1.2 Aerosol volume size distribution (AVSD)
20.3.1.3 Single scattering albedo (SSA)
20.3.2 Radiative characteristics
20.3.2.1 Aerosol radiative forcing (ARF) during major dust storms
20.4 Effect of dust storm
20.4.1 Effect of dust particle on health
20.4.2 Effect of a dust particle on climate
20.5 Summary and conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 21 - Remote sensing-based geomorphological mapping of glacial and paraglacial landforms from semiarid and subhu ...
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Study area
21.2.1 Sarchu Plain
21.2.2 Gangotri valley
21.3 Methodology
21.3.1 Identification of geomorphic landforms
21.3.1.1 Moraines
21.3.1.2 Scree cones
21.3.1.3 Glaciers
21.3.1.4 Estimation of sediment volume
21.3.1.5 Ice volume estimation
21.4 Results
21.4.1 Geomorphology
21.4.2 Ice volume estimation
21.4.2.1 Sarchu Plain
21.4.2.2 Gangotri valley
21.4.2.3 Sediment volume estimation
21.5 Discussion and conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 22 - Machine learning in remote sensing data—a classification case study
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Traditional machine learning for remote sensing
22.2.1 Image classification
22.2.1.1 Supervised image classification
22.2.1.2 Unsupervised image classification
22.2.1.3 Multitemporal classification and change detection
22.2.2 Feature selection and extraction
22.2.3 Signal unmixing
22.2.4 Regression and model inversion
22.3 New trends in machine learning for remote sensing
22.3.1 Manifold learning
22.3.2 Semisupervised learning
22.3.3 Transfer learning
22.3.4 Active Learning
22.4 Statistical machine learning methods
22.4.1 Informed statistical machine learning methods
22.4.2 Physics-based methods
22.4.3 Object-based image analysis
22.5 Categories of statistical machine learning methods
22.5.1 Classification
22.5.2 Clustering
22.5.3 Regression
22.5.4 Dimension reduction
22.6 Data and methodology
22.7 Results and discussion
22.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 23 - Remote sensing-based study of landslide hazard zonation in Namchi and its surrounding area of Sikkim, India
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Material and methods
23.2.1 Study Area
23.2.2 Data used
23.3 Methodology
23.3.1 AHP method
23.3.2 Weighted overlay analysis method
23.3.3 TWI index
23.3.4 SPI index
23.4 Input variables
23.4.1 Geology map
23.4.2 Soil map
23.4.3 Slope map
23.4.4 Aspect map
23.4.5 Land use and land cover map
23.4.6 Distance from the road map
23.4.7 Distance from drainage map
23.4.8 Relative relief map
23.4.9 Distance from lineament map
23.4.10 Lithology map
23.5 Results and discussion
23.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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