Assessment is Essential

Title
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 Why Is Assessment Essential?
A Broad View: Assessment and Democratic Values
Th e Key Question—Will Th is Help My Students Learn?
Equal Access to Educational Opportunity
Self-Governing Skills for Participation in a Democracy
Traditional Functions of Schools: Sorting and Performance
Transforming Functions of Schools: Helping All Children Learn with Mastery Goals
Assessment Tasks Th at Enhance Mastery Goals
Promoting Mastery Goals through Assessment: Examples
Th e Importance of Critical Th inking
An Overview of Assessment
Purposes of Assessment
Action Research and the Inquiry Stance
Inquiry Stance
Inquiry Stance and Action Research
Ethics and Assessment
Do No Harm
Avoid Score Pollution
Examples from Classrooms and Headlines
Judgment Calls
Harder Judgment Calls
Your Turn
Final Th oughts on Ethics and Assessment
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 2 Learning Goals: Th e First Step
Introduction
Defi ning and Using Learning Goals
Backward Design
Benefi ts of Specifying Learning Goals
Where Do Learning Goals Come From?
State and National Content Standards
District Curriculum Guides
Teacher Editions
Too Many Learning Goals, Too Little Time: Selecting Learning Goals
How Do I Write Good Learning Goals?
Selecting the Verb
Writing the Noun Phrase
Specifi city of Learning Goals
Simplifying Learning Goals
Student Input to Learning Goals
Learning Goals, Critical Th inking Skills, and Taxonomies
Cognitive Taxonomies
Aff ective and Psychomotor Taxonomies
Tables of Specifi cations
Benefi ts of a Table of Specifi cations
Using a Modifi ed Table of Specifi cations for Test Design
Challenges in Using a Table of Specifi cations
Case Study Applications
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 3 Diagnostic Assessment: Ensuring Student Success from the Beginning
Introduction
Before You Begin: High Expectations and Behaviors Th at Convey Th em
Choose Your Sources of Information Wisely
Before Classes Start
Aft er You Meet Your Students
As You Begin a New Unit of Instruction
Key Steps in Designing Pre-Unit Diagnostic Assessments
1. Prioritize Content from Your Learning Goals
2. Design and Administer Brief Measures of Top Priority Content
3. Gather Other Useful Information
4. Analyze Results of Preassessment to Determine Unit Content and Instructional Strategies
Making the Most of Your Diagnostic Assessments
Accommodations for Diverse Learners in Diagnostic Assessment
Students with Fine Motor Diffi culties
Students Learning English
Students Who Have Already Mastered the Learning Goals
Students Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention
Students with Literacy Skills Below Typical Peers
Students Who Lack Familiarity with U.S. School Culture
Final Th oughts on Accommodation for Diagnostic Assessment
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 4 Formative Assessment: Ongoing Assessment to Promote Student Success
Introduction
Formative Assessment: Th e Essential Link Between Teaching and Learning
Element 1: Make Students Aware of the Learning Goals and Evaluation Standards
Element 2: Provide Formative Tasks Th at Involve Understanding and Application
Element 3: Provide Students with Feedback to Close Any Gaps
Element 4: Avoid Grading Formative Tasks
Element 5: Off er Students an Opportunity to Close Any Gaps
Element 6: Use Formative Assessment for Enhancing Instruction
Accommodations for Diverse Learners for Formative Assessment
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 5 Progress Monitoring: Assessment as a Motivational Tool
Introduction
Goal Setting as the First Key Step
Commitment
Specifi c, Shorter-Term Goals
Formative Tasks as the Foundation for Monitoring Growth
Two Approaches to Progress Monitoring
Mastery Monitoring
General Outcome Measurement
Issues to Consider: Progress Monitoring
Summarizing Data for Groups
Frequency Distributions
Measures of Central Tendency
Building a Useful Table: An Analysis and Communication Tool
Disaggregation Uncovers Hidden Trends
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 6 Essential Characteristics of Assessment
Introduction
Reliability: Are We Getting Consistent Information?
Sources of Error
Suffi ciency of Information
Improving Reliability in Classroom Assessments
Validity: Will Scores Support Us in Making Good Decisions?
Importance of Purpose in Considering Validity
Evidence for Validity
Improving Validity in Classroom Assessments
Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
Avoiding Bias in Assessments
Unfair Penalization
Opportunity to Learn
Teacher Bias
Representing the Diversity of the Classroom
Stereotypical Representation
Contextual Invisibility
Historical Distortions
Keeping the Th ree Democratic Values in Mind
Equal Access to Educational Opportunity
Skills for Democratic Participation
Development of Critical Th inking Skills
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 7 Teacher-Made Assessments: Multiple-Choice and Other Selected-Response Items
Introduction
Aligning Items with Learning Goals and Th inking Skills
Selected-Response Formats
Multiple-Choice Formats
True-False Formats
Matching Formats
Interpretive Exercises and Assessing Higher-Level Cognitive Levels
Guidelines for Item Development
General Guidelines for All Selected-Response Formats
Guidelines for Specifi c Item Formats
Pitfalls to Avoid: Top Challenges in Designing Selected-Response Items
Constructing the Assessment
Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical Th inking
Accommodations for Diverse Learners: Selected- Response Items
Students with Fine Motor Diffi culties
Students with Sensory Challenges
Students Learning English
Students Who Have Already Mastered the Learning Goals
Students Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention
Students with Literacy Skills Below Th ose of Typical Peers
Students Who Lack Familiarity with School Culture
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 8 Teacher-Made Assessments: Short Answer and Essay
Introduction
Aligning Items with Learning Goals and Th inking Skills
Constructed-Response Formats
Short-Answer Formats
Essay Formats
Guidelines for Item Development
General Guidelines for All Constructed-Response Formats
Guidelines for Specifi c Item Formats
Constructing the Assessment
Scoring the Assessment
Scoring Short Answers
Scoring Essays
Developing a Scoring Guide
Factors Contributing Error to Essay Scores
Pitfalls to Avoid: Top Common Challenges in Constructed-Response Items and Scoring Guides
Essay Pitfalls
Scoring Guide Pitfalls
Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical Th inking
Accommodations for Diverse Learners: Constructed-Response Items
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
CHAPTER 9 Teacher-Made Assessments: Performance Assessments
Introduction
Aligning Items with Learning Goals and Th inking Skills
When to Use Performance Assessments
Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance Assessments
Guidelines for Task Development
Specify the Understanding and Skills to Be Addressed
Build Meaningfulness into the Task
Determine the Response Format
Consider the Materials and the Resources Required
Address the Degree of Structure for a Task
Monitor the Reading Demands
Address Logistics in Task Directions
Scoring the Assessment
Weighting Performance Criteria
Attaching a Grade Scale
Pitfalls to Avoid: Top Challenges in Performance Assessments
Keep the Task Related to Learning Goals
Provide Practice Before Assigning the Task
Limit the Number of Performance Criteria in the Rubric
Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical Th inking
Accommodations for Diverse Learners: Performance Tasks
Students with Fine Motor Diffi culties
Students with Sensory Challenges
Students Learning English
Students Who Have Already Mastered the Learning Goals
Students Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention
Students with Literacy Skills Below Th ose of Typical Peers (e.g., Learning Disability)
Students Who Lack Familiarity with School Culture
Case Study Application
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 10 Grading and Communicating About Student Achievement
Introduction
Why Does Grading Cause So Many Problems?
Advocate Versus Evaluator
Symbolic Value of Grades
Lack of Agreement on the Judgment Process
Ambiguous Meaning of Grades
Th e Grading Decision Process
Follow School District Grading Policy
Base Grading on Summative Assessments
Ensure Quality of Assessment
Involve Students
Weigh Recent and Consistent Performance Most Heavily
Avoid Unduly Weighting Factors Unrelated to Mastery of the Learning Goals
Avoid Using Grades as Rewards and Punishments
Review Borderline Cases Carefully
A Special Case: Students with Disabilities
Grading as a Skill
Types of Grading Approaches
Basis for Comparison
Types of Summarizing Systems
Portfolios and Communicating About Achievement
Portfolio Purposes
Implementation Issues
Portfolio Advantages and Limitations
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 11 Large-Scale Standardized Tests and the Classroom
Introduction
Defi nitions Related to Large-Scale Standardized Testing
Criterion-Referenced Scoring and Norm-Referenced Scoring
Achievement Tests and Aptitude Tests
Misconceptions Related to Large-Scale Testing
Misconception 1. Obtained Score Represents the True Score
Misconception 2. Only Commercially Published Multiple-Choice Tests Can Be Standardized
Misconception 3. Norm-Referenced Tests Compare People Who Took the Test at the Same Time
Misconception 4. Standardized Tests with Multiple- Choice Formats Address Basic Facts Only
Misconception 5: Using Large-Scale Tests to Address Individual Student Needs
Benefi ts and Pitfalls of Large-Scale Assessments
Comparisons
Curriculum Concerns
Addressing Improvement
Preparation for and Administration of Large-Scale Tests
Preparation for Tests
Administration of Large-Scale Tests
Large-Scale Test Accommodations for Diverse Learners
Reliability and Validity in Large-Scale Tests
Reliability
Validity
Interpreting Norm-Referenced Tests
Foundational Issues in Interpretation of Test Scores
Importance of the Norm Group
Comparing the Individual to the Norm Group
Interpreting Criterion-Referenced Tests
Interpreting Large-Scale Tests for Students and Parents
Explain Purpose and Content
Explain the Basis for Comparison
Explain the Infl uence of Error on Scores
Choose One Type of Score to Explain All Parts of the Test
Put the Scores in the Larger Context
Work as Partners to Determine the Next Steps
Using Large-Scale Test Results in the Classroom
Key Chapter Points
Helpful Websites
Chapter Review Questions
References
CHAPTER 12 Tying It All Together
Introduction
Six Essential Guidelines
Guideline 1: Begin with the End in Mind
Guideline 2: Find Out What Students Know
Guideline 3: Check as You Go
Guideline 4: Teach Students to Check as You Go
Guideline 5: Use Rubrics to Reinforce Attainment of the Learning Goals
Guideline 6: Assess Yourself
Assessment Eff ectiveness and Effi ciency
Choose Assessment Opportunities Selectively
Selectively Analyze Student Work
Carefully Target the Feedback You Provide
Build in Time for Self- and Peer Review
Structure Record Keeping to Encourage Student Self-Monitoring
Develop an “Assessment Bank”
Enlist Students in Assessment Design
Assessment in the Context of a Democratic Society: Classroom Examples
Center for Inquiry
Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP)
Key to Assessment in the Context of Democratic Participation
Formative Assessment and Equal Access
Formative Assessment and Self-Governing Skills
Formative Assessment and Critical Th inking
Now It’s Your Turn: Setting Personal Goals for Classroom Assessment
Personal Goal-Setting Steps
Key Chapter Points
Chapter Review Questions
Helpful Websites
References
Glossary
Index