Winner of the IAA 2008 Life Science Book Award This award is given annually to recognize excellence in publication made by a member or a corresponding member of the Academy in the fields related to life science.
Protecting the health, safety, and performance of exploration-class mission crews against the physiological deconditioning resulting from long-term weightlessness during transit and long-term reduced gravity during surface operations will require effective, multi-system countermeasures. Artificial gravity, which would replace terrestrial gravity with inertial forces generated by rotating the transit vehicle or by short-radius human centrifuge devices within the transit vehicle or surface habitat, has long been considered a potential solution. However, despite its attractiveness as an efficient, multi-system countermeasure and its potential for improving the environment and simplifying operational activities, much still needs to be learned regarding the human response to rotating environments before artificial gravity can be successfully implemented.
This book reviews the principle and rationale for using artificial gravity during space missions, and describes the current options proposed, including a short-radius centrifuge contained within a spacecraft. Experts provide recommendations on the research needed to assess whether or not short-radius centrifuge workouts can help limit deconditioning of physiological systems.
Author(s): Gilles Clément, Angeli Bukley
Series: Space Technology Library
Edition: 1
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2007
Language: English
Pages: 382
Contents......Page 13
Foreword......Page 6
Preface......Page 9
Acknowledgements......Page 11
1. Why Artificial Gravity?......Page 22
2. Mars Mission Scenario......Page 25
3. Detrimental Effects of Weightlessness......Page 28
3.2 Muscle Atrophy......Page 29
3.3 Cardiovascular Deconditioning......Page 32
3.4 Sensory-Motor Deconditioning......Page 33
3.5 Regulatory Physiology......Page 34
3.6 Human Factors......Page 36
4. Activities on Mars Surface......Page 37
5.1 In-Flight Countermeasures......Page 40
5.2 Research on Countermeasures......Page 43
6. Artificial Gravity is an Integrated Countermeasure......Page 46
7. References......Page 51
1.1 Definition......Page 54
1.2 How to Generate Artificial Gravity......Page 55
2.1 Gravity Level......Page 59
2.2 Gravity Gradient......Page 61
2.3 Coriolis Force......Page 62
3.1 Gravity Level......Page 65
3.2 Rotation Rate......Page 66
3.3 Gravity Gradient......Page 67
3.4 Comfort Zone......Page 68
4. Design Options......Page 70
4.1 Continuous Artificial Gravity: Spinning the Vehicle......Page 71
4.2 Intermittent Artificial Gravity: Internal Centrifuge......Page 76
5. References......Page 77
CHAPTER 3: HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY......Page 80
1.1 History of Space Travel and Artificial Gravity......Page 81
1.2 Science Fiction......Page 84
1.3 Formal Studies......Page 88
2.1 Flight Animal Experiments......Page 91
2.2 Human Space Experience......Page 94
3. Ground-Based Centrifuge Experiments......Page 99
3.1 Long-Radius Centrifugation......Page 100
3.2 Short-Radius Centrifugation......Page 103
3.3 Human Powered Centrifuge......Page 105
4. Summary......Page 109
5. References......Page 111
CHAPTER 4: PHYSIOLOGICAL TARGETS OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY: THE SENSORY-MOTOR SYSTEM......Page 115
1. Structure and Function of the Sensory-Motor System......Page 116
2. Spatial Orientation......Page 119
2.1 Visual Orientation......Page 120
2.2 Sensory Reinterpretation......Page 122
2.3 Perception of the "Vertical"......Page 123
2.4 Spatial Disorientation during Piloting......Page 124
3 Motion Sickness......Page 125
3.1 Sensory Conflict Model......Page 126
3.2 Centrifuge Induced Sickness......Page 127
3.3 Coriolis Induced Sickness......Page 128
4. Eye Movements......Page 131
4.1 Eye Movements during Centrifugation......Page 132
4.2 Ocular Counter-Rolling......Page 133
4.3 Velocity Storage......Page 135
5.1 Microgravity Environment......Page 136
5.2 Rotating Environment......Page 137
6. Posture and Gait......Page 142
6.1 Role of Gravity......Page 144
6.2 Effects of Artificial Gravity......Page 146
7. Conclusion......Page 148
8. References......Page 150
CHAPTER 5: PHYSIOLOGICAL TARGETS OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM......Page 157
2.1 During the Flight......Page 158
2.2 After the Flight......Page 159
3. Effects of Hypergravity......Page 160
3.1 Acute Effects of Hypergravity on the Lungs......Page 161
3.2 Acute Effects of Hypergravity on the Systemic Circulation......Page 164
4. Long- versus Short-Radius Centrifuge......Page 167
5. Short-Radius Centrifugation as a Countermeasure......Page 168
5.1 Bed Rest Studies......Page 169
5.2 Dry Immersion......Page 170
6.1 Lower Body Negative Pressure......Page 171
6.2 Effect of Standing or Walking during Bed Rest......Page 172
7. The Twin Bike System......Page 173
8. Conclusion......Page 177
9. References......Page 179
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL TARGETS OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY: THE NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM......Page 183
1.2 Myosin Heavy Chain......Page 184
1.3 Contractile Properties......Page 185
2.1 Structure......Page 187
2.2 Muscle Architecture......Page 189
2.3 Force and Power......Page 190
2.4 Muscle Energy Metabolism......Page 191
2.6 Tendon Mechanical Properties......Page 193
2.8 Neural Drive and Muscle Activation Capacity......Page 195
3. Effects of Countermeasures......Page 196
3.2 Resistive Exercise......Page 197
3.4 Lower Body Negative Pressure......Page 198
3.5 Electrical Stimulation......Page 199
3.6 Artificial Gravity......Page 200
4. Conclusion......Page 202
5. References......Page 203
CHAPTER 7: PHYSIOLOGICAL TARGETS OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY: ADAPTIVE PROCESSES IN BONE......Page 211
1. Introduction......Page 212
2. Basic Bone Biology......Page 213
2.1 Bone as an Organ......Page 214
2.2 Bone as a Tissue......Page 215
2.3 Bone as a Material......Page 219
3. Mechanical Functions of Bone......Page 221
3.1 Strain and Stress......Page 222
3.2 Aging......Page 223
3.3 Geometrical and Structural Properties......Page 224
4. Adaptive Process in Bone......Page 226
4.2 Remodeling......Page 227
4.4 Longitudinal Growth......Page 230
4.5 Importance of Muscle Contraction for Bones......Page 231
4.6 Effects of Exercise upon Bone......Page 234
5. Homeostasis......Page 235
6. Hypergravity Bone Research......Page 236
6.1 Past Research......Page 237
6.2 Research Questions......Page 241
7. References......Page 243
1. Introduction......Page 252
2. Central Vestibulo-Autonomic Pathways......Page 253
3.1 Cardiovascular Regulation......Page 254
3.2 The Respiratory System......Page 258
4. Vestibular Influence on Bone Mineralization......Page 259
5. Vestibular Influence on Hypothalamic Regulations......Page 261
6. Implications for Using Artificial Gravity as a Countermeasure......Page 262
7. References......Page 263
1. Introduction......Page 267
2.1 Energy Intake......Page 268
2.2 Protein Supplementation......Page 270
2.3 Insulin Resistance......Page 271
3.1 Vitamin A......Page 272
3.2 Vitamin K......Page 273
3.3 Vitamin B6......Page 274
4.1 Calcium and Vitamin D......Page 275
4.2 Phosphorus and Magnesium......Page 276
4.3 Sodium......Page 277
4.4 Potassium......Page 278
4.5 Iron......Page 279
6. References......Page 280
CHAPTER 10: ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTION......Page 289
1. Effects of Spaceflight......Page 290
2.2 Psychological Stress Measures......Page 291
2.3 Physiological Stress......Page 292
2.4 Immune System Status......Page 293
3.1 Epstein-Barr Virus......Page 295
3.2 Cytomegalovirus......Page 297
3.3 Varicella-Zoster Virus......Page 298
3.4 Quantification of Viral Reactivation in Artificial Gravity......Page 300
4. References......Page 301
CHAPTER 11: MEDICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY......Page 305
1. Introduction......Page 306
2. Space Medicine......Page 307
2.1 Environmental Hazards of Spaceflight......Page 308
2.2 Environmental Hazards Inside the Habitat......Page 311
2.4 Microgravity......Page 313
2.5 The Role of the Flight Surgeon......Page 314
3. Medical Monitoring during Artificial Gravity Studies......Page 322
3.1 Syncope......Page 323
3.3 Heart Rate......Page 324
3.4 Blood Pressure......Page 325
3.5 Motion Sickness......Page 327
3.6 Cardiac Arrhythmias......Page 328
5. References......Page 330
1.1 System Safety......Page 333
1.2 Safety Analysis Techniques......Page 336
2.1 Mechanical Hazards......Page 338
3. Safety in Centrifuge Design......Page 341
3.1 Structural Design......Page 342
3.2 Drive System......Page 343
3.3 Control System......Page 344
3.7 Interlock System......Page 345
4. Facility Safety Considerations......Page 346
4.1 Building Spatial Organization......Page 347
4.2 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning......Page 348
4.3 Emergency Electrical Considerations......Page 349
5. Test Subject Safety......Page 350
6. References......Page 352
1. Introduction......Page 353
2. Potentials Tools for Investigations......Page 355
3. Animal Models......Page 357
3.2 Rats......Page 358
3.3 Mice......Page 360
4. Critical Questions......Page 361
4.2 Crew Health and Performance......Page 362
5.1 Artificial Gravity as a Multipurpose Countermeasure......Page 363
5.2 Artificial Gravity Prescription......Page 364
5.4 Effectiveness of a Countermeasure......Page 365
6. Experimental Approach......Page 367
6.1 Ambulatory Studies......Page 368
6.2 Bed Rest Studies......Page 369
6.3 In-Flight Studies......Page 371
7. Conclusion......Page 373
8. References......Page 374
C......Page 375
E......Page 376
I......Page 377
N......Page 378
P......Page 379
S......Page 380
V......Page 381
Z......Page 382
