English translated by Annette Visser.
This study explores the use and significance of Roman weaponry and horse gear from non-military contexts in the eastern Rhine delta - the territory of the Batavians. Using a life-cycle model for Roman soldiers, the author interprets the large quantity of 1st-century finds as personal memorabilia brought home by ex-soldiers as a reminder of their 25 years of service, symbolising their newly-acquired veteran status. Underpinning the research is an extensive inventory of militaria from urban centres, rural settlements, cult places, rivers and graves, presented in 96 plates. The study not only presents a considerable body of unpublished data, but also offers an intriguing perspective on daily life in the northern frontier of the Roman Empire, with its closely interwoven military and civilian values.
"Amsterdam Archaeological Studies" is a series devoted to the study of past human societies from the prehistory up into modern times, primarily based on the study of archaeological remains. The series will include excavation reports of modern fieldwork; studies of categories of material culture; and synthesising studies with broader images of past societies, thereby contributing to the theoretical and methodological debates in archaeology.
Author(s): Johan Nicolay
Series: Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 11
Publisher: Amsterdam University Press
Year: 2007
Language: English
Pages: X+408
PREFACE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background, objectives and development of the research 1
1.2. Geographical context and specific characteristics of the research region 3
1.3. "Military" and "civilian" during the Roman period 10
2. MILITARY EQUIPMENT AND HORSE GEAR. A SURVEY 13
2.1. Military equipment 13
2.1.1. Defensive weaponry 13
2.1.2. Offensive weaponry 13
2.1.3. Belts, aprons and baldrics 25
2.1.4. Signalling instruments and military distinctions 41
2.2. Horse gear 44
2.2.1. Bridle 45
2.2.2. Saddle 47
2.2.3. Girths 48
2.3. Phasing and historical context 60
3. AN ANALYSIS OF THE FINDS AT THE REGIONAL AND SITE LEVEL 65
3.1. Chronological analysis 65
3.1.1. Archaeological visibility 66
3.1.2. Chronological patterns in the finds 68
3.1.3. Chronological analysis per type of find context 69
3.2. Geographical analysis 72
3.2.1. Collection method and representativity 74
3.2.2. Geographical distribution of the finds 81
3.2.3. The research region in a northwest European context 85
3.3. Composition and spatial distribution at the site level 90
3.3.1. Rural settlements and cemeteries 91
3.3.2. The urban centres at Nijmegen 115
3.3.3. Cult places 120
3.3.4. Rivers 124
3.4. Conclusion 128
4. PRODUCTION AND SYMBOLIC IMAGERY 129
4.1. The production of weaponry and horse gear 129
4.1.1. Mediterranean imports 130
4.1.2. Self-sufficient army units: production in military fabricae 131
4.1.3. The rise of private workshops 134
4.1.4. Centralised production in state workshops 137
4.2. Decoration and symbolism 138
4.2.1. Political propaganda: the glorification of the imperial family 138
4.2.2. The invincibility of Rome 145
4.2.3 Appeals for divine protection 149
5. MILITARY EQUIPMENT AND THE LIFE CYCLE OF A ROMAN SOLDIER 157
5.1. The life cycle of a Roman soldier 157
5.1.1. Enlistment, military service and honourable discharge: probatus, signatus, miles and veteranus 158
5.1.2. Veteran’s work and place of residence after their missio honesta 161
5.1.3. The origin of veterans who settled in the eastern Rhine delta 164
5.2. Use of weaponry and horse gear during the life of a soldier 166
5.2.1. The acquisition of military equipment and the question of ownership 166
5.2.2. Military use: functional objects and symbols of rank, wealth and status 171
5.2.3. ’Social use’ after completing military service: personal memorabilia 173
5.3. Types of social use in the different non-military contexts 173
5.3.1. Ritual deposition at cult places 177
5.3.2. River finds: deliberate depositions, lost items and washout material 181
5.3.3. Urban centres: lost objects, deliberate depositions and kept object 189
5.3.4. Rural settlements: ritual depositions and discarded items 193
5.3.5. Graves: gifts for the dead 199
5.4. Conclusion 206
6. NON-MILITARY USE OF WEAPONRY AND HORSE GEAR IN URBAN AND RURAL SETTLEMENTS 207
6.1. The bearing of arms by non-soldiers 207
6.1.1. The Corpus Juris Civilis: a ban on weapons possession by civilians? 207
6.1.2. Lances, spears, arrows and sling shot: hunting weapons 208
6.1.3. Swords and daggers: weapons for civilian self-defence 211
6.2. Military-civilian use of the cingulum and baldric 215
6.3. Non-military uses of horse gear 217
6.3.1. Local horse breeding to supply the Roman army 217
6.3.2. Finds of the Gallo-Roman double yoke and the role of horses as draught animals 220
6.3.3. Protective symbols for civilian mounts 225
6.4. Conclusion 235
7. WARRIORS, SOLDIERS AND CIVILIANS. USEAND SIGNIFICANCE OF WEAPONRY AND HORSE GEAR IN A CHANGING SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT 237
7.1. The pre-Roman situation: the importance of warriorship 237
7.2. Consequences of the Roman takeover: continuity and discontinuity of late Iron Age traditions 244
7.3. A ’civilian’ lifestyle at the imperial frontier 251
7.4. ’Germanic’ newcomers and a revival of martial values? 254
7.5. Conclusion 258
Abbreviations 259
Bibliography 260
Appendices 1-4 287
About the plates and the catalogue 311
Plates 1-96 312
