Archaeological Perspectives on Conflict and Warfare in Australia and the Pacific

List of figures
Figure 1.1. Relative abundance of fortified/defensive sites in the Pacific.
Figure 2.1. Distribution of pa sites and approximate latitudinal spans of marginal cultivation at the fourteenth century (A) and sixteenth century (B).
Figure 2.2. Temporal distribution of traditional Maori migrations by groups originating on the east and west coasts of the North Island, and their canoe ancestors from East Polynesia.
Figure 2.3. Phase I and II migrations.
Figure 2.4. Phase III migrations. Oval area with diagonal lines shows approximate area of origin of most Phase III migrations.
Figure 4.1. Map of Rapa Nui with main locations mentioned in text.
Figure 4.2. Two mata‘a showing tanged attachment and crescent-shaped cutting edge.
Figure 4.3. The statue Paro at Ahu Te Pito Kura.
Figure 5.1. Guam and Ritidian with the Northern Mariana Islands.
Figure 5.2. Selected traditional places in conflict across Micronesia.
Figure 5.3. First depiction of a Chamorro warrior, c. 1590–1591 CE.
Figure 5.4. Ritidian Point to the south-east from the Guam National Wildlife Refuge.
Figure 5.5. Limestone and volcanic sling stones and human bone spearpoints.
Figure 5.6. Reconstruction of a Spanish raid on a Chamorro Village, c. 1680 CE.
Figure 5.7. B-29 over Northwest Field, Guam c. 1945.
Figure 6.1. Map of the Marquesas Islands.
Figure 6.2. Mouina, chief warrior of the Tayehs (Tei‘i tribe, Nuku Hiva).
Figure 6.3. Marquesan trophy skull.
Figure 6.4. Map of observation posts on the Penau ridge, Ua Huka.
Figure 6.5. Map of the cut-ridge of Penau, Hane valley, Ua Huka.
Figure 6.6. Map of Hanaipa defensive system, Hiva Oa.
Figure 6.7. Photo of the western Makahi trench, Ua Huka island.
Figure 7.1. Aerial view of the Type II Ngermedangeb complex and the Ngermelkii crown and ditch in the Ngatpang (1969-6-2-53).
Figure 7.2. A ridge-cut impeding access to the Ngetilai crown, a Type IIIa complex in Ngardmau.
Figure 7.3. Infilled ring-ditch around base of the Oratelruul crown in Ngiwal.
Figure 7.4. A ditch bisecting a levelled ridge crest at Ked ra Ikerbeluu in Ngatpang (1976-4-217).
Figure 7.5. Aerial view of a lateral ditch (lower ditch in photo) that may be a trail or water control feature leading to a crown in Aimeliik (1976-6-2).
Figure 7.6. Section where the Compact Road has cut through east side of the Ngebars earthworks in Ngatpang.
Figure 7.7. Profile of road cut through the Ngebars earthwork complex.
Figure 7.8. A Type III earthwork complex in Ngardmau.
Figure 7.9. Ngerkelalk, a Type IIIb complex with ridge-cuts and high step-terraces leading to a crown in Aimeliik.
Figure 7.10. Documented crowns and Type III complexes in the Ngaraard Earthwork District.
Figure 8.1. Map of Lapaha and hinterlands with location of Fisi Tea and other defensive earthworks highlighted.
Figure 8.2. Detail of Fisi Tea.
Figure 8.3. Pictorial overview of morphological attributes calculated at each elevation profile.
Figure 8.4. Plots of morphological variables.
Figure 8.5. Idealised rampart construction sequence.
Figure 8.6. Energetics calculation for construction of Fisi Tea.
Figure 8.7. Selected elevation profiles extracted from the length of Fisi Tea.
Figure 9.1. Topographic map (2 m isoclines) of Tongatapu with lidar digital elevation model (DEM) and site location of fortifications.
Figure 9.2. Map of Tongatapu with boundaries of 1500 m (solid black line) and 4500 m (dashed line) from the north shore showing area of intensive inhabitation and extent of intensive agriculture.
Figure 9.3. Density map of depressions indicating potential freshwater resources.
Figure 9.4. Map of Tongatapu with soil types based on the geospatial database from the Tongan Ministry Department for Land, Survey and Natural Resources
Figure 9.5. Sightline analysis of fort locations 5 km in distance from each other.
Figure 9.6. Intervisibility analysis of fort location.
Figure 9.7. Ortho-image of Tongatapu showing modern settlements in relation to fort location.
Figure 10.1. Attack on a settler’s hut.
Figure 10.2. Rear view of the ‘men’s hut’, once part of Central Outstation, a sheep run on the western Eyre Peninsula of South Australia.
Figure 10.3. Plan view of the ‘men’s hut’ at Central Outstation, with collapsed portions reconstructed based on physical evidence and a historical photograph.
Figure 10.4. Exterior of extant embrasure in the ‘men’s hut’ at Central Outstation, subsequently blocked up.
Figure 10.5. Interior of extant embrasure in the ‘men’s hut’ at Central Outstation, subsequently blocked up.
Figure 10.6. Door from ‘Avenue Range’ (later ‘Keilira’) pastoral station.
Figure 10.7. Eastern aspect of the ‘coach-house’ at the site of Lizard Lodge, once a semi-remote farm, now in suburban Adelaide.
Figure 10.8. Plan of the ‘coach-house’ at the site of Lizard Lodge showing the position of the internally splayed embrasures in relation to the fireplace and conventional casement window.
Figure 10.9. Western elevation of ‘the Old Fort’ store building at the former site of Springvale St
Figure 10.10. Interior (left) and exterior (right) of the circular embrasures either side of the rear door of Springvale homestead.
Figure 11.1. A. Southwest Pacific and Vanuatu inset; B. Northern Malakula showing locations of 1. Bridges Store, Tautu; 2. Sanwer beach, landing location; 3. Bartanar village; 4. Mae village.
Figure 11.2. Australian troops who had been engaged in the Malakula campaign of 1916.
Figure 11.3. Memorial plaque to eight native policemen who had fallen for France on Malakula since 1914. The plaque was bulldozed during roadworks in south Malakula, Vanuatu Cultural Centre, 2015.
Figure 11.4. Remnant standing stones, Bartanar nasara, north Malakula, 2016.
Figure 11.5. Large impression said to be due to the result of naval shelling. Massing Tamendal (far left) and Chief Liten (second from right), 2016.
Figure 11.6. A. Fragment of 4-inch naval shell (inscribed on the nose: 1.05.No4.M.83 164.7.158.6⚓); B. Same shell fragment held by André Ralle, Peterpu village, north Malakula, 2015.
Figure 12.1. Location of World War II sites mentioned in text including Walliabup (Bibra Lake).
Figure 12.2. Sunday Times auction notice ‘Lot 7, Searchlight Station 10’, 16 September 1945.
Figure 12.3. Area surveyed and excavated by 2017 UWA Archaeology Fieldschool.
Figure 12.4. Site map of excavated areas, pathways (indicated by black lines) and compacted areas (grey ovals).
Figure 12.5. Selected finds from excavations at Walliabup (Bibra Lake).
Figure 12.6. General aspect, plan and section of BLA 002 (pathway) excavation.
Figure 12.7. General aspect, plan and section of BLA 007 (toilet block) excavation. Blue tarpaulin protecting large grass tree (Xanthorrhoea sp.).
Figure 12.8. General aspect and plan of BLA 040 (?laundry) clearance.
Figure 12.9. BLA 041 (septic tank) and finds.
Figure 12.10. Concrete pad, inset wooden supports and borehole.
Figure 12.11. Photographs of AWAS personnel at distinctive jarrah tree, Walliabup (Bibra Lake), 1 January 1944.
Figure 12.12. Photographs of AWAS personnel, Walliabup (Bibra Lake).
Figure 12.13. Community poster of 2017 AWAS archaeology fieldschool.
Figure 13.1. Location of the study area.
Figure 13.2. Rock art panel from Djulirri, Arnhem Land, illustrating the maritime imagery recorded by Indigenous artists.
Figure 13.3. Line drawing and photograph of Djulirri ship.
Figure 13.4. HMAS Moresby c. 1933, Bowen Queensland.
Figure 13.5. HMAS Moresby shooting party on Melville Island.
Figure 13.6. Rock art motif and D-stretch image of the aircraft from Maliwawa.
Figure 13.7. RAAF Avro Anson circa 1940 in flight.
List of tables
Table 3.1. Change in occurrence of violence from the Early to Late Holocene in what is now traditional Barapa territory, as measured by cranial trauma of the vault.
Table 6.1. List of Marquesan defensive sites identified as such in the archaeological literature.
Table 8.1. Root mean square (RMS) values calculated per vegetation type used in error analysis.
Table 8.2. Error matrix and accuracy assessment of vegetation classification for determination of digital elevation model (DEM) error zones.
Table 8.3. Fisi Tea radiocarbon ages from FT–2 and FT–11 excavations.
Table 9.1. Site names/locations for fortified sites on Tongatapu with basic geographic data for elevation, slope, distance to coast, distance to water sources and soil types.
Table 10.1. Textual references to the use of defensive architecture on the Australian frontier.
Table 12.1. Summary artefact table from excavations at Walliabup (Bibra Lake).
1. Archaeological perspectives on conflict and warfare in Australia and the Pacific
2. War is their principal profession: On the frequency and causes of Maori warfare and migration 1250–1850 CE
3. Violence and warfare in Aboriginal Australia
4. Warfare in Rapa Nui (Easter Island)
5. Traditional places in conflict and their historic context: Ritidian, Guam
6. The ʻenata way of war: An ethnoarchaeological perspective on warfare dynamics in the Marquesas Islands
7. Practical defensive features in Palau’s earthwork landscape
8. High-resolution lidar analysis of the Fisi Tea defensive earthwork at Lapaha, Kingdom of Tonga
9. Geospatial analysis of fortification locations on the island of Tongatapu, Tonga
10. The fortified homestead of the Australian frontier
11. Archives, oral traditions and archaeology: Dissonant narratives concerning punitive expeditions on Malakula Island, Vanuatu
12. Invisible women at war in the West: An archaeology of the Australian Women’s Army Service camp, Walliabup (Bibra Lake), Western Australia, c. 1943–1945
13. Painting war: The end of contact rock art in Arnhem Land
Contributors
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