Aquaculture Ecology

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Introduction
1.1 Aquaculture and Aquaculture Ecology
1.1.1 From an Art to a Science of Aquaculture
1.1.2 Aquaculture Ecology
1.2 Development of Aquaculture Ecology in China
1.2.1 Germination Phase of Aquaculture Ecology
1.2.2 Rapid Expansion Phase of Aquaculture Ecology
1.2.3 Mature Phase of Aquaculture Ecology
1.3 Sustainable Development of Aquaculture
1.3.1 Status and Trends of Aquaculture Development
1.3.1.1 Status of Aquaculture Development
1.3.1.2 Trends of Aquaculture Development
1.3.1.3 The Number of Farmed Species Items Continues to Increase
1.3.1.4 The Proportion of Fed Species Production Keeps Increasing
1.3.1.5 The Level of Intensification Continues to Increase
1.3.2 Major Challenges to Aquaculture Development
1.3.2.1 Limited Available Land and Freshwater Resources vs. Growing Demand for Quality Aquatic Products
1.3.2.2 Increasing Energy Consumption vs. Global Emission Reduction Tasks
1.3.2.3 Crowded Inland Waters and Coastal Aquaculture Areas vs. Almost Vacant Offshore Areas
1.3.3 Dialectical Thinking in Integrated Aquaculture in China
1.3.4 Ecological Intensification of Aquaculture Production Systems
1.3.4.1 The Gains and Losses of Simplistic Intensification
1.3.4.2 Ecosystem Aquaculture Approach
1.3.4.3 Ecological Intensification of Aquaculture Systems
1.3.5 Toward to the New Era of Green Aquaculture
1.4 Characteristics of Aquaculture Ecology
1.4.1 Major Research Areas of Aquaculture Ecology
1.4.1.1 Individual Ecology of Farmed Organisms in Aquaculture
1.4.1.2 Water and Sediment Quality Management of Aquaculture Systems
1.4.1.3 Ecology of Aquaculture Systems
1.4.1.4 Interaction between Aquaculture Activities and the Environment
1.4.1.5 Ecological Rationales of Disease Prevention
1.4.2 Characteristics of Aquaculture Ecology
1.4.2.1 The Diversity of Target Objects
1.4.2.2 Versatility of Aquaculture Systems
1.4.2.3 Applicability for Industrial Development
1.4.2.4 Interdisciplinary Approach
2: Aquaculture Ecosystem
2.1 Classification of Aquaculture Systems
2.1.1 Characteristics of Aquaculture System
2.1.1.1 Differences from Natural Aquatic Ecosystems
2.1.1.2 Differences from Terrestrial Agroecosystems
2.1.2 Traditional Classification of Aquaculture Systems
2.1.3 Classification Based on the Energy Sources
2.1.4 Classification Based on Systemic Metabolic Characteristics
2.1.5 Classification Based on Material Budget in the System
2.1.6 Classification Based on Ecological Limiting Factors
2.1.6.1 Inorganic Nutrient-Dependent Systems
2.1.6.2 Food-Dependent Systems
2.1.6.3 Oxygen-Dependent Systems
2.1.6.4 Multi-Environment Factor-Dependent Systems
2.1.6.5 Heterotrophic Food Web-Dependent Systems
2.1.6.6 Species or Subsystem Coupling-Dependent System
2.2 Major Physical Environment in Aquaculture System
2.2.1 Physical Characteristics of Water
2.2.2 Light in Waters
2.2.2.1 Reflection and Absorption of Sunlight
2.2.2.2 Transparency and Water Color
2.2.2.3 Biological Effects of Light
2.2.3 Water Temperature
2.2.3.1 Thermal Stratification and its Ecological Significance
2.2.3.1.1 Inverse Stratification of Water Temperature in Winter
2.2.3.1.2 Isothermal in Spring
2.2.3.1.3 Stratification in Summer
2.2.3.1.4 Isothermal in Autumn
2.2.3.2 Thermal Mixing Types of Water
2.2.3.3 Wind Drift and Circulation
2.2.3.4 Requirements for Water Temperature in Aquatic Animals
2.2.4 Salt Content of Water
2.2.4.1 Chemical Classification of Salt Content in Water
2.2.4.2 Effects of Salt Content on Aquaculture
2.3 Major Chemical Environment in Aquaculture System
2.3.1 Dissolved Oxygen
2.3.1.1 The Solubility of Oxygen in Water
2.3.1.2 The Budget of DO in Water
2.3.1.2.1 Reaeration and Degassing
2.3.1.2.2 Photosynthesis
2.3.1.2.3 Oxygen Consumption in Water
2.3.1.2.4 Oxygen Consumption in Sediment
2.3.1.3 Distribution and Dynamics of DO in Water
2.3.1.3.1 Diurnal Variation of DO in Aquaculture Waters
2.3.1.3.2 Vertical Distribution of Dissolved Oxygen in Aquaculture Waters
2.3.1.3.3 Horizontal Distribution of DO in Aquaculture Waters
2.3.1.4 Tolerance of Cultured Animals to Dissolved Oxygen
2.3.2 pH and Carbonate Buffering System
2.3.3 Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide
2.3.3.1 Ammonia
2.3.3.2 Hydrogen Sulfide
2.4 Biological Environment of Aquaculture Organisms
2.4.1 Microorganisms of Aquaculture Waters
2.4.2 Food Web Structure of Aquaculture Waters
2.4.2.1 Food Chain and Food Web
2.4.2.2 Food Web Structure in Aquaculture Ponds
2.4.2.3 Waste Utilization in Aquaculture System
2.5 Ecological Differences Among Aquaculture Waters
2.5.1 Ecological Efficiency of Different Types of Reservoirs
2.5.2 Ecological Differences Among Various Aquaculture Waters
2.5.2.1 Ecological Continuum
2.5.2.2 Ecological Differences Among Inland Aquaculture Waters
2.5.2.3 Ecological Differences Among Mariculture Waters
2.5.2.4 Coastal Mariculture, off-the-Coast Mariculture and Offshore Mariculture
2.5.3 Limiting Nutrient Element in Aquaculture Water
2.5.4 Ecological Succession of Aquaculture Waters
2.5.4.1 Succession of Plankton Community after Disinfection
2.5.4.2 Changes in Plankton Biomass in Reservoir after Dam Closure
2.6 Ecological Pyramid of Aquaculture Ecosystems
2.7 Ecosystem Services of Aquaculture Ecosystems
3: Productivity and Carrying Capacity of Aquaculture
3.1 Productivity and Influence Factors of Aquaculture Waters
3.1.1 Productivity of Aquaculture Waters
3.1.2 Influence Factors on Productivity
3.1.2.1 Stocking Species
3.1.2.2 Aquaculture Models
3.1.2.3 Natural Conditions
3.2 Evaluation of the Productivity of Aquaculture Waters
3.2.1 Productivity Evaluation of Aquaculture Ponds
3.2.2 Productivity Evaluation of Large Aquaculture Waters
3.2.2.1 Morphoedaphic Index
3.2.2.2 Productivity of Herbivorous Fish
3.2.2.2.1 Bioenergetic Models for Grass Carp
3.2.2.2.2 Growth Model of Aquatic Vascular Plant
3.2.2.2.3 Productivity Estimation of Grass Carp
3.2.2.3 Productivity of Filter-Feeding Fish
3.2.2.3.1 Productivity Estimation Based on Plankton Biomass
3.2.2.3.2 Productivity Estimation Based on Primary Productivity
3.2.2.4 Productivity of Zoobenthivorous Fish
3.2.2.5 Productivity Estimation Based on Stocking and Harvest Data
3.2.2.5.1 Concept of Fish Production
3.2.2.5.2 Catch Analysis of the Fishes in the Reservoir
3.2.2.5.3 Estimation of Survival Rates of the Fish in the Reservoir
3.2.2.5.4 Production of the Fishes in the Reservoir
3.3 Carrying Capacity and Influence Factors of Aquaculture Waters
3.3.1 Carrying Capacity of Aquaculture
3.3.2 Influence Factors on Carrying Capacity
3.4 Evaluation of Carrying Capacity of Aquaculture Waters
3.4.1 Carrying Capacity of Shrimp Farming in Seawater Ponds
3.4.2 Carrying Capacity of Cage Aquaculture in Reservoirs
3.4.3 Carrying Capacity of Kelp in Bays
3.4.4 Carrying Capacity of Bivalve Aquaculture
3.4.5 Carrying Capacity Evaluation by Nutrient Loading Models
3.4.6 Models of Carrying Capacity Evaluation
4: Interactions Between Aquaculture and Environment
4.1 Requirements of Water Quality for Aquaculture
4.2 Effects of Exogenous Pollutants on Aquaculture
4.2.1 Nutrients Derived from Agriculture and Sewage Discharge
4.2.2 Harmful Algal Blooming
4.2.3 Oil Pollution
4.2.4 Heavy Metals
4.2.5 Pesticide and TBT
4.3 Negative Effects of Aquaculture on Environment
4.3.1 Obstacle to Water Current and Sedimentation
4.3.2 Eutrophication
4.3.3 Chemical Discharge
4.3.3.1 Antimicrobial Drugs
4.3.3.2 Pesticides
4.3.3.3 Metals
4.3.3.4 Disinfectants
4.3.4 Escape of Farming Fish and Invasion of Exotic Species
4.3.4.1 Escape of Farming Fish
4.3.4.2 Invasion of Exotic Species
4.3.5 Destroy of Mangrove
4.3.6 Effects on Biological Community
4.3.6.1 Direct Effect on the Structure of Biological Community
4.3.6.2 Effect of Aquaculture Facilities on the Structure of Biological Community
4.3.6.3 Effect of Culture Activities on the Structure of Biological Community
4.3.7 Conflicts between Aquaculture and Other Industrial Usage
4.4 Effects of Global Climate Changes on Aquaculture
4.4.1 Effects of Global Climatic Changes on Aquatic Ecosystems
4.4.1.1 Changes in Hydrological Cycle and Rainfall Patterns
4.4.1.2 Sea Level Rise
4.4.1.3 Water Temperature Increase
4.4.1.4 Changes in Dissolved Oxygen Contents
4.4.1.5 Ocean Acidification
4.4.1.6 Changes in Primary Production in Water Area
4.4.2 Effect of Global Climate Change on Aquaculture
4.5 Aquaculture and Greenhouse Gas Emission
4.5.1 Energy Consumption and Carbon Emission in Aquaculture Activities
4.5.2 Carbon Removal from Aquaculture Products
4.5.3 Carbon Sequestration in Sediment of Aquaculture Waters
4.5.4 Fluxes of Greenhouse Gases between Water-Air Interface
4.5.5 Carbon Sinking Fisheries
5: Growth of Aquaculture Animals
5.1 Growth Pattern of Aquatic Animals
5.1.1 Growth Characteristics and Sizes of Aquatic Animals
5.1.2 Growth Models of Aquatic Animals
5.1.2.1 von Bertalanffy Equation in Fish
5.1.2.2 von Bertalanffy Equation of Shellfish
5.1.2.3 Bioenergetics Models of Aquatic Animals
5.2 Effects of Temperature on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.2.1 Adaptability of Aquatic Animals to Temperature
5.2.2 Effects of Water Temperature on Farmed Animals
5.2.2.1 Effects of Temperature on the Growth of Sea Cucumber
5.2.2.2 Effects of Temperature on the Growth of Shrimp
5.2.2.3 Effects of Temperature on the Growth of Salmonid Fish
5.2.2.4 Effects of Water Temperature on the Growth of Farmed Channel Catfish
5.3 Effect of Salinity on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.3.1 Adaptability of Aquatic Animals to Salinity
5.3.2 Effects of Salinity on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.3.2.1 Salinity Effects on the Growth of Sea Cucumber
5.3.2.2 Effect of Salinity on the Growth of Shrimp
5.3.2.3 Effect of Salinity on the Growth of Salmon and Trout
5.4 Effects of Dissolved Oxygen on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.4.1 Adaptability of Aquatic Animals to Dissolved Oxygen
5.4.2 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.5 Effect of Light on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.5.1 Adaptability of Aquatic Animals to Light
5.5.2 Effect of Light on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.5.2.1 Effect of Light Intensity on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.5.2.2 Effect of Photoperiod on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.5.2.3 Effect of Light Color on the Growth of Farmed Animals
5.6 Individual Variation in Growth of Farmed Animals
5.6.1 Factors Influencing Growth Variation
5.6.1.1 Inherent Growth Variation of Farmed Animals
5.6.1.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Growth Variation of Farmed Animals
5.6.1.3 Effect of Social Hierarchical Behavior on Farmed Animals
5.6.1.4 Effect of Gender on Growth Variation of Farmed Animals
5.6.2 Effects of Feeding and Stocking Density on Growth Variation
5.6.2.1 Effect of Feeding Strategy on Growth Variation
5.6.2.2 Stocking Density and Growth Variation
5.6.3 Individual Size and Growth Variation
5.7 Compensatory Growth of Aquatic Animals after Periodic Starvation
5.7.1 Compensatory Growth Phenomena and Characteristics of Aquatic Animals
5.7.2 Compensatory Growth of Aquatic Animals Following Periodic Starvation
5.7.2.1 Compensatory Growth after Treatment with Starvation-Feeding Cycles
5.7.2.2 Changes in Body Biochemical Composition during Compensatory Growth Period
5.7.3 Factors Affecting on Compensatory Growth
5.7.3.1 Food Restriction Extent
5.7.3.2 Starvation Duration and Recovery Duration
5.7.3.3 Nutritional Properties of Food
5.7.3.4 Sexual Maturity and Temperature
5.7.4 Physio-Ecological Mechanism of Compensatory Growth
5.7.5 Application of Compensatory Growth Theory
6: Effects of Environmental Factor Fluctuation on Aquatic Organisms
6.1 Effects of Fluctuation in Temperature on Aquatic Organisms
6.1.1 Effects of Diurnal Rhythmic Fluctuations in Temperature on Seaweeds
6.1.2 Effects of Periodic Temperature Fluctuations on Aquatic Animals
6.1.2.1 Effects of Periodic Fluctuations in Temperature on the Growth of Aquatic Animals
6.1.2.2 Effects of Different Change Rates of Temperature on Aquatic Animals
6.1.2.3 Effects of the Amplitude of Thermal Fluctuation on Growth of Aquatic Animals
6.1.2.4 Effect of Temperature Fluctuations and Ration on Growth of Aquatic Animals
6.1.2.5 Mechanisms of Growth Enhancement under Fluctuating Thermal Regimes
6.1.2.5.1 Increased Food Intake under Fluctuating Temperature Regimes
6.1.2.5.2 Bioenergetic Mechanisms of Growth Enhancement under Fluctuating Thermal Regimes
6.1.2.6 Potential Applications to Aquaculture Practices
6.2 Effects of Fluctuations in Salinity on Aquatic Organisms
6.2.1 Effects of Periodic Fluctuations in Salinity on Seaweeds
6.2.2 Effects of Cyclical Fluctuations in Salinity on Shrimp
6.3 Effects of Periodic Exposure to the Air on Seaweeds
6.4 Effects of Rhythmic Fluctuations in Light on Aquatic Organisms
6.4.1 Effects of Rhythmic Fluctuations in Light on U. Pertusa
6.4.1.1 Effects of Photoperiod on U. Pertusa
6.4.1.2 Effects of Rhythmic Fluctuations in Light Intensity on U. Pertusa
6.4.1.3 Effects of Light Color Changes on U. Pertusa
6.4.2 Effects of Rhythmic Fluctuations in Light on Shrimp
6.4.2.1 Effects of Periodic Fluctuations in Light Intensity on Shrimp
6.4.2.2 Effects of Rhythmic Changes in Light Color on the Growth of Shrimp
6.4.3 Effects of Gradual Changes in Photoperiod on Fish
6.5 Effects of Ca2+ Concentration and pH Fluctuations on Shrimp
6.5.1 Effects of Ca2+ Concentration Fluctuations on Shrimp
6.5.2 Effects of pH Fluctuations on Shrimp
6.5.2.1 Effects of pH Fluctuation Amplitudes on Shrimp
6.5.2.2 Effects of pH Fluctuation Periods on Shrimp
6.6 Effect of Periodic Changes in Nutrient Factors on Shrimp
7: Biological Regulation of Water Quality in Aquaculture
7.1 Biomanipulation of Aquatic Ecosystems
7.2 Phytoplankton Production and its Limiting Factors
7.2.1 Photosynthesis and Respiration of Phytoplankton
7.2.2 Physical and Chemical Factors Affecting Phytoplankton Growth
7.2.2.1 Light
7.2.2.2 Inorganic Nutrients
7.2.2.3 Water Temperature
7.2.3 Phytoplankton Communities in Aquaculture Ponds
7.3 Nutrient Uptake Kinetics of Seaweeds
7.3.1 Nutrient Requirement of Seaweeds
7.3.2 Response of Seaweeds to Iron Stress
7.3.3 Kinetics of Nitrogen Uptake by Seaweeds
7.3.3.1 Nitrogen Storage and Uptake Capacity
7.3.3.1.1 Growth Rate and Nitrogen Storage under Nitrogen Enrichment and Starvation
7.3.3.1.2 Kinetics of Uptake of Nitrogen-Starved Seaweeds
7.3.3.1.3 Uptake and Assimilation during Nitrogen Starvation
7.3.3.2 Effects of Temperature and Salinity on Nitrogen Uptake of Seaweeds
7.3.3.2.1 Effect of Temperature and Salinity on Nitrogen Uptake of N-Starved Gracilaria
7.3.3.2.2 Effects of Temperature, Salinity, and Light on Nitrogen Uptake of Sargassum Thunbergii
7.3.4 Kinetics of Phosphorus Uptake of Seaweeds
7.3.4.1 Theory of Resources Competition
7.3.4.2 Phosphorus Uptake and Growth Kinetic Parameters of Ulva
7.3.4.3 Effects of Temperature, Salinity, Light Intensity, and N:P on the P Uptake Rate of Sargassum Thunbergii
7.3.5 Purification of Aquaculture Water by Seaweeds
7.4 Interactions between Seaweeds and Microalgae
7.4.1 Nutrient Competition between Seaweeds and Microalgae
7.4.1.1 P Uptake and Growth Kinetic Parameters of Seaweed and Microalgae
7.4.1.2 Competition between Seaweed and Microalgae under Nutrient Limitation
7.4.1.3 R-K Selection Rule for Nutrient Competition between Seaweeds and Microalgae
7.4.1.4 Nutrient Competition between Seaweeds and Microalgae at Different Initial Biomass Ratios
7.4.2 Seaweed Allelopathy on Microalgae
7.5 Feeding of Filter-Feeding Fish and Bivalves
7.5.1 Measurement of Filter Feeders´ Feeding
7.5.1.1 Measurement of Bivalve Feeding
7.5.1.2 Measurement of Filter-Feeding Fish Feeding
7.5.2 Feeding Capacity of Filter-Feeding Feeders
7.5.2.1 Feeding Capacity of Bivalves
7.5.2.1.1 Selectivity and Clearance Rates of Food Particles by Bivalves
7.5.2.1.2 Effect of Microalgal Density on Clearance Rate of Bivalves
7.5.2.1.3 Influence of Environmental Factors on Clearance Rates of Bivalves
7.5.2.2 Feeding Capacity of Filter-Feeding Fish
7.5.2.2.1 Suction Volume of Filter-Feeding Fishes
7.5.2.2.2 Filtering Efficiency of Silver Carp and Bighead Carp
7.5.2.2.3 Evasion of Zooplankton from Fish Feeding
7.5.2.2.4 Feeding Capacity of Filter-Feeding Fish
7.5.3 Feeding Rhythms and Food Selectivity of Filter-Feeding Fish
7.5.3.1 Feeding Rhythms of Silver Carp and Bighead Carp
7.5.3.2 Food Selectivity of Silver Carp and Bighead Carp
7.5.3.3 Effects of Food Organism Composition and Inorganic Particles in Water on the Feeding Habits of Silver Carp and Bighead...
7.5.4 Relationship between Feeding and Respiration of Filter-Feeding Fish
7.5.4.1 Relationships between Feeding and Respiration of Silver at Low Dissolved Oxygen Levels
7.5.4.2 Effect of Phytoplankton Density on Feeding and Respiration of Silver Carp
7.5.4.3 Effects of Phytoplankton Sizes on Feeding and Respiration of Silver Carp
7.5.4.4 Effects of Starvation on Feeding and Respiration of Filter-Feeding Fish
7.6 Proliferation of Phytoplankton by Bivalve Metabolites
7.6.1 Respiration and Excretion of Filter-Feeding Bivalves
7.6.2 Proliferation of Phytoplankton by Bivalve Metabolites
7.7 Effects of Bivalves on Water and Sediment Quality
7.7.1 Effects of Bivalves on Water Quality of Farming Ponds
7.7.2 Effects of Bivalves on Sediment of Aquaculture Ponds
7.8 Effects of Filter-Feeding Fish Stocking on Water Quality
7.8.1 Effects of Filter-Feeding Fish on Water Quality
7.8.1.1 Effects of Stocking Silver Carp and Bighead Carp on Water Quality
7.8.1.2 Effects of Tilapia on Plankton Community
7.8.2 Effect of Filter-Feeding Fish on Bacterioplankton
7.8.3 Effects of Silver Carp Stocking on Pattern of Nutrient Cycling
8: Sediment and Remediation of Aquaculture Ponds
8.1 Sediment of Aquaculture Ponds
8.1.1 Characteristics of Pond Soil
8.1.2 Ion Exchange Between Pond Sediment and Water
8.1.3 Acidity of Pond Sediment
8.2 Sedimentation in Aquaculture Ponds
8.3 Respiration of Aquaculture Pond Sediment
8.3.1 Aerobic Respiration of Pond Sediment
8.3.2 Anaerobic Respiration of Pond Sediment
8.4 N and P Exchange Between Sediment and Overlying Water
8.4.1 Nitrogen Exchange Between Sediment and Overlying Water
8.4.2 Phosphorus Exchange Between Sediment and Overlying Water
8.4.3 Factors Affecting Exchange of N and P Between Sediment and Water
8.4.3.1 Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen
8.4.3.2 pH and Redox Potential
8.4.3.3 Properties and Organic Matters of Sediments
8.4.3.4 Bioturbation
8.5 Remediation of Aquaculture Pond Sediment
8.5.1 Physical Remediation
8.5.2 Chemical Remediation
8.5.2.1 Alkalization of Pond Sediment
8.5.2.2 Oxidation of Pond Sediment
8.5.3 Bioremediation
8.5.3.1 Microbial Remediation
8.5.3.2 Phytoremediation
8.5.3.3 Animal Remediation
9: Integrated Aquaculture and Structure Optimization
9.1 History of Integrated Aquaculture in China
9.1.1 Definition of Integrated Aquaculture
9.1.2 Historical Evolution of Integrated Aquaculture in China
9.2 Rationales of Integrated Aquaculture
9.2.1 Waste Reclamation Through Trophic Relationship
9.2.2 Water Quality Maintenance Through Complementary Mechanism
9.2.2.1 Complementary Metabolic Functions
9.2.2.2 Chemically Complementary Functions
9.2.3 Water Quality Regulation Through Top-down Effect
9.2.4 Full Utilization of the Resources of Aquaculture Waters
9.2.4.1 Full Utilization of Space and Diet Organisms
9.2.4.2 Full Utilization of Time or Seasons
9.2.5 Diseases Prevention Ecologically
9.2.6 Benefit Multiplication Through Integration with Other Activities
9.2.7 Making Full Use of Other Services of Aquaculture Ecosystem
9.2.8 Dialectical Way of Thinking in Integrated Aquaculture
9.3 Classification of Integrated Aquaculture Systems
9.3.1 Species Integration
9.3.1.1 Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture or Trophic Integration
9.3.1.2 Spatial Integration
9.3.1.3 Rotary Stocking and Harvesting
9.3.1.4 Temporal Integration
9.3.1.5 Disease Prevention Integration
9.3.1.6 Multi-function Integration
9.3.1.7 Other Integration
9.3.2 System Integration
9.3.2.1 Integration of Aquatic Systems
9.3.2.1.1 Partitioned Aquaculture Systems or Sequential Integration
9.3.2.1.2 Aquaculture and Aquatic Agriculture Integration
9.3.2.1.3 Aquaponics
9.3.2.1.4 Aquaculture and Waterfowl Integration
9.3.2.1.5 Fish and Amphibian Integration
9.3.2.1.6 Aquasilviculture
9.3.2.1.7 Other Integrations
9.3.2.2 Integration of Aquatic and Land Systems
9.3.2.2.1 Integration of Pond with Livestock or Poultry Farming
9.3.2.2.2 Integration of Pond and Plantation
9.3.2.2.3 Other Integrated Land-Aquatic Systems
9.3.2.3 Integration of Aquaculture with the Services Provided by the space above the Farm
9.3.2.4 Integration of Aquaculture with the Culture Services of the Farm
9.4 Structure Optimization of Integrated Aquaculture
9.4.1 Principles of Structure Optimization
9.4.1.1 Ecological and Economic Benefits
9.4.1.2 Harmonization of Ecological and Economic Benefits
9.4.2 Methodology of Structure Optimization
9.5 Structure Optimization of Integrated Aquaculture
9.5.1 Structure Optimization of Integrated Aquaculture in a Reservoir
9.5.2 Structure Optimization of Integrated Aquaculture in Ponds
9.5.3 Structure Optimization of Integrated Aquaculture in a Seawater Bay
9.6 Development of Integrated Aquaculture
9.6.1 The Intensification Level of IA Models Still Needs To Be Improved
9.6.2 Research, Extension, and Application Are Indispensable
9.6.3 Commoditization and Certification
9.6.4 Food Safety and Seaweed Market
9.6.5 Implementation of Effective Management
10: Land-Based Intensive Aquaculture Systems
10.1 Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
10.1.1 Principles of Conventional Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
10.1.2 Denitrification in Modern Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
10.1.3 Commercial Application of Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
10.2 Solar Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
10.2.1 Aquaponic Systems
10.2.1.1 Principles and Advantages of Aquaponic Systems
10.2.1.2 Management and Structural Optimization of Aquaponic Systems
10.2.2 Solar Recirculating Aquaculture Systems Based on Submerged Plants
10.2.2.1 Structure of SRAS Based on Submerged Plant
10.2.2.2 Light and Temperature Control of SRAS
10.2.2.3 Ratio of Fish to Algae in SRAS Systems
10.2.2.4 Comparison of Polyculture Models of Grouper and Aquatic Plants
10.2.2.5 Research and Development of SRAS in Other Countries
10.2.3 Solar Recirculating Aquaculture Systems Based on Microalgae
10.3 Raceway Aquaculture Systems
10.3.1 Conventional Raceway Aquaculture Systems
10.3.2 In-pond Raceway Aquaculture Systems
10.3.2.1 Structure and Principle of IPRS
10.3.2.2 Carrying Capacity of IPRS
10.3.2.3 Ecological and Economic Benefits of IPRS
10.3.3 Local Intensification of Aquaculture Ponds
10.3.3.1 Local Aeration and Feeding of Pond
10.3.3.2 Split-pond System
10.3.3.3 Net Cages in a Pond
10.4 Biofloc-based Aquaculture Systems
10.4.1 Introduction to Biofloc-based Aquaculture Systems
10.4.2 Water Quality in Biofloc-based Aquaculture Systems
10.4.2.1 Photosynthesis of Phytoplankton
10.4.2.2 Assimilation of Bacteria
10.4.2.3 Nitrification of Bacteria
10.4.2.4 Denitrification of Bacteria
10.4.3 Regulation of Water Quality in Biofloc-based Aquaculture System
10.4.3.1 C/N Regulation
10.4.3.2 pH Regulation
10.4.3.3 Concentration Regulation of Biofloc Particles
10.5 Development of Land-based Intensive Aquaculture Systems
11: Pond Aquaculture in Waterlogged Salt-Alkali Land
11.1 Pond-Based Aquaculture-Agriculture Systems
11.1.1 Introduction to Salt-Alkali Land
11.1.2 Pond-Based Aquaculture-Agriculture Systems
11.2 Water Quality and Biological Environment of Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.2.1 Water Quality of Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.2.2 Aquatic Organisms of Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.2.2.1 Phytoplankton and Primary Productivity in Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.2.2.2 Zooplankton in Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.2.2.3 Macrophytes and Benthic Animals in Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.3 Salt and Alkalinity Tolerance of Aquaculture Animals
11.3.1 Effects of pH on Aquacultured Animals
11.3.2 Salt Tolerance of Aquiculture Animals
11.3.3 Alkalinity Tolerance of Aquaculture Animals
11.4 Effects of Cations in Water on Shrimp
11.4.1 Adaptability of Shrimp to Na+/K+ Ratios in Water
11.4.2 Adaptability of Shrimp to Ca2+ Concentration in Water
11.4.3 Adaptability of Shrimp to Mg2+/Ca2+ Ratios in Water
11.5 Water Quality Management in Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.5.1 Effects of Fertilization on Water Quality of Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.5.2 Water Quality Improvers for Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.5.2.1 Effects of KCl Application on Shrimp Farming
11.5.2.2 Effects of CaCl2 Application on Water Quality in Pond
11.5.2.3 Effects of Other Acidic Chemicals Application on Water Quality in Pond
11.5.3 Water Quality Regulation by Filter-Feeder Fish in Salt-Alkali Ponds
11.5.3.1 Inner Net Partitioned Polyculture of Shrimp and Tilapia
11.5.3.2 Effects of Tilapia on Phytoplankton Community
11.5.3.3 Structural Optimization of Shrimp and Tilapia
12: Cage Farming of Fish in Open Waters
12.1 Overview of Cage Farming
12.1.1 History of Cage Farming
12.1.1.1 Simple Cage Stage
12.1.1.2 Modern Cage Stage
12.1.1.3 Offshore Cage Stage
12.1.2 Types of Farming Cages
12.1.2.1 Classification Based on the Floating Status
12.1.2.2 Classification Based on Ways of Maintaining the Net Shape
12.1.2.3 Classification Based on the Distance Away from Seashore
12.1.2.4 Classification Based on Farming Species
12.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cage Farming
12.1.3.1 Expansion of Aquaculture Waters and Improvement of Product Quality
12.1.3.2 Easier to Manage
12.1.3.3 Reduced Metabolic Activity and Enhanced Growth of Farmed Animals
12.1.3.4 Prevent Harm from Predators or Parasites
12.1.3.5 Convenient to Realize Mechanization and Intellectualization
12.1.3.6 Major Problems of Cage Culture
12.2 Carrying Capacity of Cage Farming in Open Waters
12.2.1 Simple Models
12.2.2 Particle Tracking Model
12.2.3 Water Quality Model
12.2.4 Integrated Numerical Model
12.3 Biofoulers and Antifouling of Farming Cage
12.3.1 Biofoulers of Net Cages
12.3.2 Effect of Biofoulers on Cage Farming
12.3.2.1 Restriction of Water Exchange
12.3.2.2 Deformation of Cages
12.3.2.3 Disease Risk
12.3.3 Antifouling of Net Cages
12.3.3.1 Net Changing and Cleaning
12.3.3.2 Chemical Antifoulants
12.3.3.3 Biological Antifouling
13: Health Maintenance and Welfare of Aquatic Animals
13.1 Health Maintenance of Aquaculture Animals
13.1.1 Environment Degradation in Relation to Disease Occurrence
13.1.2 Environmentally Induced Diseases
13.1.2.1 Water Temperature
13.1.2.2 Dissolved Gases
13.1.2.3 pH
13.1.2.4 Nitrogen-Containing Metabolites
13.1.2.5 Other Pollutants
13.1.2.6 Water Quality Standard for Fisheries
13.1.3 Health Maintenance of Farmed Fish
13.1.3.1 Site Selection of Fish Farms
13.1.3.2 Avoiding Exposure to Infectious Pathogens
13.1.3.3 Nutritional Diseases
13.1.3.4 Prevention Outweighs Treatment
13.2 Regulation of Bacterial Community in Aquaculture Waters
13.3 Ecological Prevention of Diseases in Shrimp Aquaculture
13.3.1 Transmission Routes of White Spot Syndrome Virus
13.3.2 WSS Outbreak in Relation to the Environment
13.3.2.1 WSS in Relation to the Physical Factors of Aquaculture Water
13.3.2.2 WSS in Relation to the Chemical Factors of Aquaculture Water
13.3.2.3 WSS in Relation to the Biological Factors of Aquaculture Water
13.3.3 Comprehensive Prevention of WSS
13.3.3.1 Pre-Treatment of Shrimp Farming Water
13.3.3.2 Blocking WSSV Transmission during Shrimp Culture
13.3.3.3 Keeping Good Environmental Conditions of Farming Ponds
13.3.3.3.1 Disturbance Reduction
13.3.3.3.2 Green Water Farming
13.3.3.3.3 Probiotic Applications
13.4 Welfare of Farmed Fish
13.4.1 Welfare Indicators of Farmed Fish
13.4.1.1 Welfare Indicators
13.4.1.2 Water Physical and Chemical Parameters
13.4.1.3 Complexity of Environment
13.4.1.4 Stocking Density, Foraging Behavior, and Social Behavior
13.4.2 Methods for Assessing Fish Welfare
14: Aquaculture Mapping in the Context of Climate Change
14.1 EAA-Based Aquaculture Mapping
14.1.1 Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture
14.1.2 Carrying Capacity Estimation
14.2 Aquaculture Zoning
14.2.1 Factors Should be Considered for Aquaculture Zoning
14.2.2 Key Steps for Aquaculture Zoning
14.2.2.1 Identification of the Areas Suitable for Aquaculture
14.2.2.2 Identification of Issues and Risks in Zoning
14.2.2.3 Broad Carrying Capacity Estimation for Aquaculture Zones
14.2.2.4 Biosecurity and Zoning Strategies
14.2.2.5 Legal Designation of Zones for Aquaculture
14.2.3 Aquaculture Zoning in the Context of Climate Change
14.2.3.1 Global Warming
14.2.3.2 Ocean Acidification
14.2.3.3 Hypoxia and Anoxia
14.2.3.4 Sea Level Rising
14.2.3.5 Extreme Events
14.2.3.6 Impacts from Multiple Stressors
14.2.4 Methods for Aquaculture Zoning
14.2.4.1 Geographic Information Systems-Based Multiple-Criteria Evaluation
14.2.4.2 Ecological Models for Aquaculture Zoning
14.3 Case Studies of Aquaculture Mapping in China
14.3.1 Heat Sensitivity of Common Aquaculture Species in China
14.3.2 Offshore Aquaculture of Salmon in the Yellow Sea
14.3.3 Impacts of Extreme High Temperature on Pond Aquaculture of Sea Cucumber
15: Sustainability of Aquaculture Production Systems
15.1 Multidimensionality of Aquaculture Systems
15.1.1 Economic Functions of Aquaculture Systems
15.1.2 Linkages between Aquaculture and Wild Fish Resources
15.1.3 Food Production Functions of Aquaculture Systems
15.1.4 Land Use by Aquaculture
15.1.5 Use of Waters by Aquaculture
15.1.6 Impacts of Aquaculture on the Environment
15.2 Ecological Footprint of Aquaculture
15.2.1 Ecological Efficiency and Ecological Footprint
15.2.2 Life Cycle Assessment
15.2.2.1 The Concept of LCA
15.2.2.2 The Methodological Phases of LCA
15.2.2.2.1 Goal and Scope Definition
15.2.2.2.2 Inventory Analysis
15.2.2.2.3 Impact Assessment
15.2.2.2.4 Interpretation of Results
15.2.3 Ecological Footprint of Different Aquaculture Systems
15.2.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition of the Systems
15.2.3.2 Inventory Analysis of the Systems
15.2.3.3 Impact Assessment and Interpretation of Results of the Systems
15.2.4 Ecological Footprint and System Sustainability
15.3 Carbon Footprint of Aquaculture
15.4 Water Footprint of Aquaculture
15.4.1 Water Footprint and Assessment
15.4.2 Water Footprint of Aquaculture Systems
15.5 Emergy Analysis of Aquaculture
15.5.1 Emergy Analysis Theory
15.5.1.1 Emergy
15.5.1.2 Emergy Transformity
15.5.1.3 Basic and Performance Indicators of Emergy Analysis
15.5.1.3.1 Emergy/Money Ratio
15.5.1.3.2 Emergy Investment Ratio
15.5.1.3.3 Emergy Yield Ratio
15.5.1.3.4 Emergy Self-Support Ratio
15.5.1.3.5 Environmental Loading Ratio
15.5.1.3.6 Renewable Emergy Input Ratio
15.5.1.3.7 Emergy Exchange Ratio
15.5.1.3.8 Emergy Sustainability Index
15.5.1.3.9 Emergy Index for Sustainable Development
15.5.1.4 Basic Steps of Emergy Analysis
15.5.2 Emergy Analysis of Different Aquaculture Systems
15.5.2.1 Economic Benefits of the Three Farming Systems of Sea Cucumber
15.5.2.2 Emergy Calculation and Analysis
15.6 Sustainability of Aquaculture Production Systems in China
15.6.1 Uncertainties of Aquaculture Development
15.6.2 Sustainability Assessment of Aquaculture Production Systems
15.6.3 Ecological Intensification of Aquaculture Production Systems
15.7 Outlook
References