Applied Power Quality: Analysis, Modelling, Design and Implementation of Power Quality Monitoring Systems

Front Cover
Applied Power Quality: Analysis, Modelling, Design and Implementation of Power Quality Monitoring Systems
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Introduction to power quality in modern power systems
1.1. Introduction
1.2. What is power quality?
1.2.1. Main power quality disturbances
1.2.1.1. Steady-state voltage variation
1.2.1.2. Steady-state frequency variation
1.2.1.3. Unbalance
1.2.1.4. Harmonic distortion
1.2.1.5. Voltage fluctuations and flicker
1.2.1.6. Voltage sags
1.2.1.7. Voltage swells
1.2.1.8. Transients
1.2.1.9. Characterising power quality disturbances
1.3. Power quality management philosophy
1.3.1. Power quality standards
1.3.1.1. IEC standards
1.3.1.2. IEEE standards
1.4. Overview of contents
1.4.1. Chapter 2: Steady-state voltage in low voltage networks
1.4.2. Chapter 3: Impact and management of power system voltage unbalance
1.4.3. Chapter 4: Impact and management of power system harmonics
1.4.4. Chapter 5: Impact and management of power system voltage fluctuations, flicker and rapid voltage changes
1.4.5. Chapter 6: Impact and management of power system voltage sags
1.4.6. Chapter 7: Implications of equipment behaviour on power quality
1.4.7. Chapter 8: Power quality monitoring, data analysis and reporting
References
Chapter 2: Steady-state voltage in low voltage networks
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Voltage standards
2.2.1. Nominal voltages
2.2.2. Standards
2.3. Equipment response to voltage magnitude
2.3.1. Impact of voltage magnitude on equipment operation
2.3.1.1. Induction motors
2.3.1.2. Lighting
Incandescent lamps
Tubular fluorescent lamps
Modern lighting technologies
Capacitor/reactor banks
Transformers
2.3.2. Impact of voltage magnitude on consumer electricity bills
2.3.2.1. Conservation voltage reduction
2.4. Causes of steady-state voltage variation
2.5. Principles of voltage regulation in LV feeders
2.5.1. Voltage regulation without distributed generation
2.5.2. Impact of distributed generation on voltage regulation
2.5.2.1. Voltage regulation with distributed generation
2.6. Techniques for improving voltage regulation
2.6.1. Network upgrades
2.6.2. Line capacitors
2.6.3. Power factor correction
2.6.4. Low voltage regulators
2.6.5. Low voltage STATCOM
2.6.6. On-load tap changing distribution transformers
2.6.7. Ferroresonant transformer
2.6.8. Inverter power quality response modes
2.6.8.1. Volt-watt response
2.6.8.2. Volt-var response
2.6.9. Energy storage
2.6.10. Other technologies
References
Chapter 3: Impact and management of power system voltage unbalance
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Commonly used definitions
3.3. Measurement of voltage unbalance
3.4. Impact of voltage unbalance
3.5. Management of voltage unbalance in power systems
3.5.1. Installations supplied by a dedicated symmetrical network-Approximate analysis
3.5.2. Symmetrical installations supplied by a dedicated asymmetrical network-Approximate analysis
3.5.3. Asymmetrical Installations supplied by a dedicated asymmetrical network-Approximate analysis
3.5.4. Meshed asymmetrical network supplying asymmetrical loads-Approximate analysis
3.5.5. Voltage unbalance propagation and attenuation in power systems-The role of three-phase induction motors
3.5.6. Voltage unbalance network measurements and network planning levels
References
Chapter 4: Impact and management of power system harmonics
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Definition of waveform (harmonic) distortion
4.2.1. Analysis of waveform distortion
4.2.1.1. Integer harmonic distortion
4.2.1.2. Classification and harmonic phase sequence
4.2.1.3. Interharmonic distortion
4.2.1.4. High-frequency distortion (supraharmonics)
4.3. Measurement and analysis of harmonic distortion
4.3.1. Measurement standards
4.3.2. Transducers
4.3.3. Analysis techniques
4.4. Sources of harmonic distortion
4.4.1. Resonance
4.4.1.1. Frequency dependence of network impedance
4.4.1.2. Series resonance
4.4.1.3. Parallel resonance
4.4.1.4. Mitigating the impacts of parallel resonance
4.4.2. Characteristics of harmonic distortion in electricity distribution networks
4.5. Impact of harmonic distortion
4.5.1. Impact on customer equipment
4.5.1.1. Electronic loads
4.5.1.2. Motor loads
4.5.1.3. Power factor correction capacitors
4.5.2. Economic impact of harmonics
4.5.2.1. Economic impact to consumers
Direct costs
Indirect costs
4.5.2.2. Economic impact on network components
4.6. Management of harmonic distortion in electricity supply networks
4.6.1. Compatibility levels
4.6.2. Planning levels
4.6.3. Emission levels
4.6.4. Management of harmonic distortion in low voltage networks
4.6.5. Management of harmonic distortion in medium and high voltage networks
4.6.6. Fixed harmonic emission allocation methodologies
4.6.7. Network forecast methodologies
4.6.7.1. Preconnection compliance assessment
Modelling of network impedance
Modelling process for power electronic connections
4.6.8. Impact of renewable energy generation on emission allocation
4.6.8.1. Uncertainty related to previous harmonic allocations
Difficulties in the application of existing headroom approaches
4.6.8.2. Uncertainty of REG connection location and volume
4.6.8.3. Uncertainty of future harmonic impedance of networks
4.6.9. Postconnection compliance assessment
4.7. Mitigation of harmonic distortion
4.7.1. Network augmentation/changes to supply arrangements
4.7.2. Harmonic filters
4.7.3. Series reactors
4.7.4. Transformer phase shift
References
Chapter 5: Impact and management of voltage fluctuations, flicker and rapid voltage changes
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Effects of voltage fluctuations
5.3. Power quality parameters associated with voltage fluctuations
5.3.1. Flicker measurement and indices
5.3.2. Measurement of rapid voltage changes
5.3.3. Flicker propagation and attenuation in power systems
5.4. Management of voltage fluctuations and flicker and their measurement and network planning levels
References
Chapter 6: Impact and management of power system voltage sags
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Definition of voltage sags
6.3. Causes of voltage sags
6.4. Empirical characteristics of voltage sags
6.5. Factors influencing voltage sag severity
6.6. Impact of voltage sags
6.6.1. Equipment susceptibility
6.6.1.1. Switch mode power supplies
6.6.1.2. Variable speed drives
6.6.1.3. Induction motors
6.6.1.4. AC contactors
6.6.2. Industry sag immunity curves
6.6.2.1. CBEMA and ITIC curves
6.6.2.2. SEMI F47 curve
6.6.3. Network capability
6.6.4. Economic impact of voltage sags
6.7. Mitigation of voltage sags
6.7.1. Network solutions
6.7.1.1. Fault reduction
6.7.1.2. Modification of fault clearing practices
6.7.1.3. Reduction of fault impacts
6.7.2. Coil hold-in devices
6.7.3. Ferroresonant transformer
6.7.4. Uninterruptible power supply
6.7.5. Flywheel and motor-generator (MG)
6.7.6. Dynamic voltage restorer
6.7.7. Static var compensator
6.7.8. Sag proofing transformers
6.7.9. Static transfer switch
6.7.10. Motor soft starting
6.7.11. Energy storage technologies
6.7.11.1. Flywheels
6.7.11.2. Batteries
6.7.11.3. Capacitors
6.7.11.4. Superconducting magnetic energy storage
6.7.12. Cost of sag mitigation technologies
6.7.12.1. Cost of mitigation technologies
6.7.12.2. Comparison of costs of storage technologies
6.8. Assessment and reporting of voltage sags
6.8.1. Phase and time aggregation
6.8.2. Indices for individual sag events
6.8.3. Site reporting
6.8.3.1. Site indices
6.8.3.2. Tabular reporting formats
6.8.4. Assessment and reporting of overall network performance
References
Chapter 7: Implications of equipment behaviour on power quality
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Power electronic converters
7.2.1. Phase control AC/AC conversion
7.2.2. AC/DC conversion
7.2.2.1. Capacitor-filtered rectifier
7.2.2.2. Inductor-filtered rectifier
7.2.3. DC/AC conversion (inverter)
7.2.4. More complex conversion circuits
7.2.4.1. Switch-mode power supply
7.2.4.2. AC motor drive
7.3. Motor loads
7.3.1. Direct-on-line motor starting
7.3.2. Harmonic distortion
7.4. Capacitor banks
7.4.1. Oscillatory transients
7.4.1.1. Magnification of capacitor energisation transients
7.4.1.2. Preventing capacitor energisation transient problems
For the network operator
For the customer
7.4.2. Harmonic resonance
7.4.2.1. Detuning power factor correction capacitors
7.5. Arcing loads
7.6. Transformers
7.6.1.1. Energisation
7.6.1.2. Harmonic distortion
Magnetising current
Core saturation
7.7. Load behaviour
7.7.1. Lighting systems
7.7.1.1. Incandescent
7.7.1.2. Tubular fluorescent
7.7.1.3. Compact fluorescent lamps
7.7.1.4. LED
7.7.1.5. Discharge lighting
7.7.2. Consumer electronics
7.7.2.1. Audio-visual equipment
Televisions
DVD player
Gaming console
7.7.2.2. Information technology equipment
Personal computers
LCD monitor
7.7.2.3. Chargers
7.7.2.4. Microwave ovens
7.7.3. Air conditioning
7.7.3.1. Direct-on-line air conditioner
7.7.3.2. Inverter air conditioner
7.7.4. White goods
7.7.5. Renewable energy
7.7.5.1. Small-scale renewable energy equipment
Small-scale renewable energy harmonic distortion
Large-scale renewable energy equipment
7.7.6. Electric arc furnaces
7.7.7. Mesh welders
7.8. Impact of variations in supply voltage on appliance performance
7.8.1. Impact of variation in supply voltage magnitude
7.8.2. Impact of variation in supply voltage distortion level
7.9. Power quality standards for equipment performance
7.9.1. Harmonic current distortion
7.9.1.1. IEC 61000-3-2
7.9.1.2. IEC 61000-3-12
7.9.1.3. Requirements for connection of equipment at voltages above low voltage
7.9.2. Flicker and voltage fluctuations
7.9.2.1. Requirements for connection of equipment above low voltage
References
Chapter 8: Power quality monitoring, data analysis and reporting
8.1. Introduction
8.1.1. What is power quality monitoring?
8.1.2. Reasons for PQ monitoring
8.1.3. Power quality monitoring timescale and amplitude aspects
8.1.4. Continuous and discrete disturbances-Monitoring and reporting requirements
8.2. Standards for power quality monitoring
8.2.1. Role of standards
8.2.2. IEC 61000-4-30
8.2.2.1. IEC61000-4-30 instrumentation classes
8.2.2.2. IEC61000-4-30 aggregation intervals
8.2.2.3. Flagging concept
8.3. PQ disturbances and their characterisation
8.3.1. Steady-state voltage magnitude/variation
8.3.2. Unbalance
8.3.3. Harmonics
8.3.4. Voltage fluctuations and flicker
8.3.5. Voltage sags
8.3.6. Transients
8.4. Power quality instruments
8.4.1. Instrumentation requirements
8.4.2. Instrumentation used for power quality monitoring
8.4.2.1. Handheld/spot check instruments
8.4.2.2. Smart tariff meters
8.4.2.3. Mid-range power quality monitors
8.4.2.4. High-range power quality monitors
8.4.2.5. Other instruments
8.5. Transducers
8.5.1. Classes of transformer
8.5.2. Voltage transducers/transformers
8.5.2.1. Inductive voltage transformers
8.5.2.2. Capacitive voltage transformer
8.5.2.3. Voltage dividers
8.5.2.4. Electro-optic voltage transducers
8.5.3. Current transformers
8.5.3.1. Inductive current transformers
8.5.3.2. Rogowski current transformers
8.5.3.3. Hall effect current transformers
8.5.3.4. Magneto-optic current transducer
8.6. Motivation for power quality monitoring
8.6.1. Reactive power quality monitoring (fault finding)
8.6.1.1. Fault finding methodology
8.6.1.2. What type of disturbance to look for?
8.6.2. Proactive power quality monitoring
8.6.2.1. What disturbances are measured and why
8.6.2.2. Should monitoring be at low voltage or medium voltage?
8.6.2.3. Site selection
8.6.2.4. Survey duration
8.6.3. Practical aspects of power quality monitoring
8.6.3.1. Instrumentation
8.6.3.2. Site selection
8.6.3.3. Transducers
8.6.3.4. Data retrieval and storage
8.7. Reporting of power quality data
8.7.1. Site reporting
8.7.1.1. Time series trends
8.7.1.2. Histograms
8.7.2. Network reporting
8.7.3. Utility reporting
8.7.3.1. Compliance summary
8.7.3.2. Distribution of site indices
8.7.3.3. Utility indices
References
Index
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