Applied Geomorphology and Contemporary Issues

Contents
Climate Change and Rivers Response
1 Large-Scale Sediment Transport Modelling: Development, Application, and Insights
Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Regional Scale Suspended Sediment Model
1.2.1 Input Data
1.2.2 Major Controls on Sediment
1.2.3 Example: Fraser River Basin Studies
1.3 Results
1.3.1 Basin-Wide Sediment Maps
1.3.2 Timing of Sediment Load
1.3.3 Regional Scale Sources and Sinks
1.3.4 Erosional Estimates
1.4 Closing Remarks
Acknowledgements
References
2 An Appraisal to Anthropogeomorphology of the Chel River Basin, Outer Eastern Himalayas and Foreland, West Bengal, India
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Study Area
2.3 Material and Methods
2.4 Results
2.4.1 Sediment Mining
2.4.1.1 Thalweg Shifting and Instability of Channel Bars
2.4.1.2 Bed Elevation Change
2.4.1.3 Shifting of Pool-Riffle Sequence
2.4.1.4 Deformation of Channel Beds
2.4.1.5 Channel Planform Changes
2.4.1.6 Others Impacts
2.4.2 Bridge Construction
2.4.2.1 Surface Elevation Change
2.4.2.2 Channel Migration
2.4.2.3 Effects on Hydraulic and Geometric Parameters
2.4.3 Extension of Embankments
2.4.4 Change in Land Use
2.4.5 Intensive Cultivation of Channel Bars
2.4.6 Road Widening
2.4.7 Growth in Tourism
2.4.8 Surface Coal Mining
2.5 Discussion
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
3 Channel Migration Vulnerability in the Kaljani River Basin of Eastern India
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Study Area
3.3 Materials and Methods
3.3.1 Changing Course of the Kaljani River
3.3.2 Channel Migration Zone (CMZ) Model
3.3.2.1 Historical Migration Zone (HMZ)
3.3.2.2 Avulsion Hazard Zone (AHZ)
3.3.2.3 Erosion Hazard Area (EHA)
Erosion Setback (Es)
Geotechnical Setback (Gs)
3.3.2.4 Disconnected Migration Area (DMA)
3.3.3 River Presence Frequency Approach (RPFA)
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.4.1 Analysis of Historical Migration Zone (HMZ)
3.4.2 Analysis of the Avulsion Hazard Zone (AHZ)
3.4.3 Analysis of Erosion Hazard Area (EHA)
3.4.3.1 Cross-Sectional Studies and Erosion Hazard Area (EHA)
3.4.4 Delineating the Disconnected Migration Area (DMA)
3.4.5 Channel Migration Vulnerability Zone
3.4.5.1 Channel Migration Zone Based on HMZ
3.4.5.2 Channel Migration Vulnerability Based on CMZ
3.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
4 Exploring Change of River Morphology and Water Quality in the Stone Mine Areas of Dwarka River Basin, Eastern India
Abstract
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Study Area
4.3 Materials and Methods
4.3.1 Methods for the Volume of Stone Dust Estimation on the River Bed
4.3.2 Methods for Assessing Impacts on Channel Morphology
4.3.2.1 Methods for Assessing the Channel Path Modification Due to Direct Stone Mining from the River Bed
4.3.3 Assessing Stone Dust Accretion Susceptibility at the Riverbed
4.3.3.1 Data Layer Selection and Preparation for River Bed Accretion Susceptibility
Volume of Dust Heaping
Direct Dust Deposition at the River
Distance from the Crusher Units
Bed Shear Stress
Velocity of Flow During Pre-monsoon and Monsoon Season
Steepness of Bank Slope and River Bed Slope
Density of Water
Depth of River Water
4.3.3.2 Susceptibility Zoning Using Fuzzy Logic
4.3.3.3 Methods for River Bed Accretion Susceptibility Model Using Random Forest Algorithms (RFA)
Assessing Performance of the Models
4.3.4 Measuring Sediment Load
4.3.5 Methods for Analyzing Water Quality
4.4 Results
4.4.1 Volume of Dust Deposition
4.4.2 Channel Bed Accretion
4.4.3 Simulated Result of River Bed Accretion Susceptibility and Performance Assessment
4.4.4 Shifting of Flow Paths
4.4.5 Impact on Sediment Flow
4.4.6 Impact on Ambient Water Quality
4.5 Discussion
4.6 Conclusions
Funding
References
5 An Attempt to Forecast Seasonal Precipitation in the Comahue River Basins (Argentina) to Increase Productivity Performance in the Region
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Data and Methodology
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.3.1 Morphological Analysis of the Basins
5.3.2 Climatological Analysis of the Limay and the Neuquen River Basins
5.3.3 Climatological Analysis of the Negro River Basin
5.3.4 Relationship Between MAM Precipitation and Previous Climate Patterns
5.3.5 Predictors Definition
5.3.6 Design and Goodness of Fit of Statistical Regression Models
5.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
6 Channel Instability in Upper Tidal Regime of Bhagirathi-Hugli River, India
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Materials and Methods
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.3.1 Sedimentary River Bank Facies Analysis
6.3.1.1 River Bank Facies Analysis at Tegharipara
6.3.1.2 Bank Facies Analysis at Dhatrigram
6.3.1.3 Bank Facies Analysis at Santipur
6.3.1.4 Bank Facies Analysis at Chak Noapara
6.3.1.5 Bank Facies Analysis at Chandra
6.3.2 Bank Erosion Hazard Index and Channel Instability
6.3.3 Reach Scale Bank Erosion and Land Loss
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 The Pattern of Extreme Precipitation and River Runoff using Ground Data in Eastern Nepal
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Geographic Setting of the Study Area
7.2.1 Precipitation System
7.2.2 The Koshi River Basin System
7.3 Data and Method
7.3.1 Data
7.3.2 Method of Analysis
7.4 Results
7.4.1 Extreme Precipitation and Its Relationship with Topography
7.4.2 Spatial Distribution and Magnitude-Frequency Relation of Precipitation
7.4.3 Pattern of Extreme River Runoff
7.5 Discussion
7.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
8 Climate Change and its Impact on Catchment Linkage and Connectivity
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept of Connectivity in Hydro-geomorphic Systems
8.3 Climate Change and Connectivity
8.3.1 Impact on Hydrological Connectivity
8.3.2 Impact on Sediment Connectivity
8.4 Conclusions and Outlook
References
9 Inter-decadal Variability of Precipitation Patterns Increasing the Runoff Intensity in Lower Reach of Shilabati River Basin, West Bengal
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Study Area
9.3 Materials and Methods
9.3.1 Model and Potential Retention Equation
9.3.2 Rainfall Characteristics in the Study Area (2001–2020)
9.3.3 Identification of Drainage Pattern and Hydrological Soil Groups Map of Catchment Area
9.3.4 Computation of Curve Number (CN) from Land Use and Hydrological Soil Group
9.3.5 Estimation of Runoff Using SCS Curve Number Techniques
9.4 Result and Discussion
9.5 Conclusion
References
Land Degradation, Resource Depletion and Livelihood Challenges
10 Are the Badlands of Tapi Basin in Deccan Trap Region of India “Vanishing Landscape?” Badland Dynamics: Past, Present and Future!
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Study Area
10.3 Material and Method
10.4 Results
10.4.1 Comparison of the DEMs
10.4.2 Sediment Analysis
10.4.2.1 Power of Hydrogen (pH)
10.4.2.2 Organic Matter Content
10.4.2.3 Electrical Conductivity
10.4.2.4 Exchangeable of Sodium Percentage (ESP)
10.4.2.5 Granulometric Parameter
10.4.2.6 K Value (Erodibility of Soil)
10.4.2.7 Mean Scour Depth
10.4.3 Rainfall Factor (R)
10.4.3.1 Estimated Return Period of the Rainfall
10.4.4 Morphometric Parameters
10.4.4.1 Stream Length (SL INDEX) Ratio
10.5 Discussion
10.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
11 Soil Piping: Problems and Prospects
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Hydrological Impact of Natural Soil Piping
11.3 Considerations of Soil Piping on a Loess Soil in Germany: A Case Study
11.4 Forms and Processes of Subsurface Erosion
11.5 Field Measurements
11.6 Seepage Water Movement Based on the Bromide Tracing
11.7 Land Degradation, Sub-surface Erosion and Piping
Acknowledgements
References
12 Role of LU and LC Types on the Spatial Distribution of Arsenic-Contaminated Tube Wells of Purbasthali I and II Blocks of Burdwan District, West Bengal, India
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Regional Setting
12.3 Material and Methods
12.3.1 GPS Point Collection
12.3.2 Satellite Image Processing and Accuracy Assessment
12.3.3 Spatial Analysis
12.4 Results
12.4.1 Existing LULC Classification and Mapping
12.4.2 Spatial Distribution of Arsenic-Contaminated Tube Wells
12.4.3 Relation Between LULC and Arsenic Contamination
12.5 Discussion
12.6 Conclusions
References
13 Forecasting the Danger of the Forest Fire Season in North-West Patagonia, Argentina
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Methodology
13.3 Result and Discussion
13.3.1 The Characterization of the Mean FWI Values and the Definition of Its Predictors
13.3.2 The Statistical Forecast Models and Their Efficiency
13.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
14 Quantifying the Spatio-seasonal Water Balance and Land Surface Temperature Interface in Chandrabhaga River Basin, Eastern India
Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Materials and Methods
14.2.1 Method for Water Balance Calculation
14.2.2 Method for Surface Runoff Estimation
14.2.3 Method for Evapotranspiration Estimation
14.2.4 Method for Estimation of Recharge
14.2.5 Method for Land Surface Temperature Assessment
14.2.5.1 Conversion of the Digital Number (DN) to Spectral Radiance (Lλ)
14.2.5.2 Conversion of Spectral Radiance (Lλ) to At-Satellite Brightness Temperatures (TB)
14.2.5.3 Land Surface Temperature (LST)
14.3 Results and Analysis
14.3.1 Rainfall Analysis
14.3.2 Runoff Analysis
14.3.3 Evapotranspiration Analysis
14.3.4 Groundwater Recharge/Deficit
14.3.5 Temporal Pattern of Water Balance
14.3.6 Land Surface Temperature
14.3.7 Spatial Association Between LST and Water Deficit
14.4 Conclusion
Funding
References
15 Application of Ensemble Machine Learning Models to Assess the Sub-regional Groundwater Potentiality: A GIS-Based Approach
Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.2.1 Study Area
15.2.2 Data Used
15.2.3 Preparing Groundwater Influencing Factors
15.2.4 Machine Learning Ensemble Meta-classifiers Modes for the GWPMs
15.2.4.1 Bagging
15.2.4.2 Dagging
15.2.5 Validation of Groundwater Potentiality Models
15.3 Results and Analysis
15.3.1 Groundwater Potentiality Models
15.3.2 Validation and Comparison of Applied Models
15.3.3 Significant Factors Identification by MDGs
15.4 Discussion
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Enhancement of Natural and Technogenic Soils Through Sustainable Soil Amelioration Products for a Reduction of Aeolian and Fluvial Translocation Processes
Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Materials and Methods
16.2.1 Soil Amelioration Products
16.2.2 Procedure
16.2.3 Biometric Methods
16.3 Results and Discussion
16.3.1 Re-Greening of Extreme Locations in South Africa
16.3.2 Reduction of Aeolian Transport Processes in Lower Lusatia
16.3.2.1 Grass-Herbs Mixture
16.3.2.2 Woody Plants
16.3.3 Reduction of Fluvial Transport Processes and Security of Yields in the Kalahari
16.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
17 Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Purulia District, India Using LANDSAT Data
Abstract
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Study Area
17.3 Materials and Methods
17.3.1 Materials
17.3.2 Methods
17.3.2.1 Digital Image Processing (DIP)
17.3.2.2 Image Classification
17.3.2.3 Land Use and Land Cover
17.3.2.4 Accuracy Assessment
17.3.2.5 LULC Change Detection
17.4 Results
17.4.1 Land Cover Changes at the District Level
17.4.2 Watershed Scale Land Cover Changes
17.4.2.1 Subarnarekha Watershed
17.4.2.2 Damodar Watershed
17.4.2.3 Kangshabati Watershed
17.4.2.4 Dwarakeswar Watershed
17.4.2.5 Silabati Watershed
17.4.3 Markov Chain Analysis
17.4.4 Impacts on the Basin Hydrology
17.5 Discussion
17.6 Conclusions
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
References
18 Prioritization of Watershed Developmental Plan by the Identification of Soil Erosion Prone Areas Using USLE and RUSLE Methods for Sahibi Sub-Watershed of Rajasthan and Haryana State, India
Abstract
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Study Area
18.2.1 Geomorphology
18.2.2 Soil
18.2.3 Rainfall and Climate
18.3 Data Sources and Methodology
18.3.1 Ancillary Data
18.3.2 Preparation and Discussion on Thematic Maps
18.3.2.1 Drainage, Watershed, and Surface Water Bodies
18.3.2.2 Land Use/Land Cover
18.3.2.3 Soil/Land Capability Class
18.3.2.4 Slope Map
18.3.3 Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
18.3.3.1 Modeling Soil Detachment with RUSLE in GIS Environment
18.3.3.2 Factors Used in Erosion Equations in USLE Model
18.3.3.3 RUSLE
18.4 Result and Discussion
18.4.1 Drainage Density
18.4.2 Discussion of USLE and RUSLE Method in Respect of Drainage Density
18.4.2.1 Prioritization of Watershed Developmental Planning
18.4.2.2 Prioritization of Watershed Developmental
18.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
19 Estimation of Soil Erosion Using Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Model in Subarnarekha River Basin, India
Abstract
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Database and Methodology
19.2.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)
19.2.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
19.2.3 Topographic Factor (LS)
19.2.4 Crop Management (C) and Support Practice (P) Factor
19.3 Result and Discussion
19.3.1 Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)
19.3.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
19.3.3 Topographic Factor (LS)
19.3.4 Cover Management Factor (C)
19.3.5 Support Practice (P) Factor
19.3.6 Spatial Distribution of Soil Erosion
19.3.7 Accuracy Results
19.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
20 Land Cover Changes in Green Patches and Its Impact on Carbon Sequestration in an Urban System, India
Abstract
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Assessment of Land Cover Change
20.2.1 Scanning Method
20.2.2 Survey Method
20.2.3 Application of Geospatial Tools
20.3 Land Use Changes in the Burdwan Municipality Area
20.4 Prediction of Carbon Balance in the Burdwan Municipality Area
20.5 Future Directions
Acknowledgements
References
21 Review on Sustainable Groundwater Development and Management Strategies Associated with the Largest Alluvial Multi-aquifer Systems of Indo-Gangetic Basin in India
Abstract
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Methodology Adopted for the Study
21.3 The Indo-Gangetic Plain and Aquifer System
21.3.1 Sediment Deposition History
21.3.2 Geometric Configuration of the Multi-aquifer Systems
21.3.3 Siwalik Aquifer System
21.3.4 Pleistocene and Flood Plain Deposits
21.3.5 Geometry of Alluvial Aquifer Systems
21.3.6 Thickness of Granular Zone in Unconfined Aquifer
21.3.7 Thickness of Granular Zone in the Confined Aquifer
21.4 Groundwater Resources Assessment and Data Analysis
21.4.1 Water Resources of Unconfined Aquifer
21.4.2 Groundwater Development Strategy from Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
21.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Large Dams and River Systems
22 Predicting the Distribution of Farm Dams in Rural South Africa Using GIS and Remote Sensing
Abstract
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Study Area
22.3 Methods
22.3.1 Digital Data Collection and Analysis
22.3.2 Digital Data Integration
22.3.3 Evaluation of Factors Influencing Farm Dam Spatial Distributions
22.3.4 Predictive Modelling of Dam Distributions
22.4 Results
22.4.1 Landsat Image Classification
22.4.2 Spatial Distribution of Farm Dams
22.4.3 Principal Component Analysis
22.4.4 Predictive Modelling of Farm Dam Site Location
22.5 Discussion
22.6 Conclusions
References
23 Large Dams, Upstream Responses, and Riverbank Erosion: Experience from the Farakka Barrage Operation in India
Abstract
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Backdrop of the Study
23.3 The Research Problem
23.4 Materials and Methods
23.5 Lateral Shifting of Channels
23.6 Regional Geology: The Game Changer
23.7 Conclusion
References
Climate Change, Geomorphic Hazards and Human Livelihood
24 Climate Change and Human Performance: Assessment of Physiological Strain in Male Paddy Cultivators in Hooghly, West Bengal, India
Abstract
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Materials and Methods
24.3 Result and Discussion
24.3.1 In the Case of MTG-A, the Working Thermal Environmental Condition in Terms of WBGT Index
24.3.2 In the Case of MTG-A, the Working Thermal Environmental Condition in Terms of MDI Index
24.3.3 In the Case of MTG-A, the Working Thermal Environmental Condition in Terms of P4SR Index
24.3.4 For MTG-B Individuals
24.3.5 Drudgery Index for MTG-A Individuals
24.3.6 Drudgery Index for MTG-B Individuals
24.3.7 HPDI for MTG-A Individuals
24.3.8 HPDI for MTG-B Individuals
24.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
25 Study on Climate Change and Its Impact on Coastal Habitats with Special Reference to Ecosystem Vulnerability of the Odisha Coastline, India
Abstract
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Methodology
25.3 Key Vulnerabilities in Coastal Areas
25.3.1 Increase in Atmospheric Temperature
25.3.2 The Rise in Ocean Heat Content
25.3.3 Sea-Level Rise
25.3.4 Changes in Intensity and Frequency of Storms
25.3.5 Flood
25.3.6 Other Natural Hazards
25.4 Impact of Climatic Hazards on Coastal Ecosystem
25.5 Assessment of Vulnerability in Odisha Coastal Area
25.5.1 Major Climatic Risks in the Odisha Coast
25.5.2 Impact of Climate Change Issues Relevant to the Odisha Coast
25.5.3 Problems of Coastal Ecosystem of Odisha
25.5.4 Action Plans
25.6 Future Possible Risks of Coastal Areas Related to Climate Change
25.7 Conclusions
References
26 The Millennium Flood of the Upper Ganga Delta, West Bengal, India: A Remote Sensing Based Study
Abstract
26.1 Introduction
26.2 The Flood-Prone Upper Ganga Delta
26.3 The Event
26.4 Materials and Methods
26.5 The Millennium Flood: Occurrence, Analysis, and Discussion
26.5.1 Evidence from Satellite Images
26.5.2 Hydraulic Routing of the Millennium Flood
26.5.3 Extent of Inundation
26.5.4 Planform Changes Due to the Millennium Flood
26.6 Conclusions
References
27 Tropical Cyclone: A Natural Disaster with Special Reference to Amphan
Abstract
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Origin of TCs and Amphan
27.2.1 Initial Development
27.2.2 Maturity
27.2.3 Decay
27.2.4 Structure of TCs
27.2.4.1 Eye
27.2.4.2 Eyewall Cloud Region
27.2.4.3 Rain/Spiral Bands
27.2.4.4 Outer Storm Area
27.3 Classification and Naming of Tropical Disturbances
27.3.1 Path and Season of Tropical Cyclones
27.3.2 Monitoring of Tropical Cyclones
27.3.2.1 Satellite
27.3.2.2 Synoptic Chart and Bouys Data
27.3.2.3 Radar
27.3.2.4 Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP)
27.3.3 A Few Destructive Tropical Cyclones in Indian Ocean
27.4 Hazards Associated with Tropical Cyclone Amphan
27.4.1 Storm Surge
27.4.2 Strong Wind
27.4.3 Rainfall and Associated Flood
27.5 Conclusion
References
28 Observed Changes in the Precipitation Regime in the Argentinean Patagonia and Their Geographical Implication
Abstract
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Materials and Methods
28.2.1 Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification
28.2.2 Gamma Distribution
28.3 Results
28.3.1 Scale and Shape Parameters of Gamma Distribution
28.3.2 Box Plot Using Gamma Distribution
28.3.3 Precipitation Linear Trends
28.4 Discussion and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
29 An Assessment of Severe Storms, Their Impacts and Social Vulnerability in Coastal Areas: A Case Study of General Pueyrredon, Argentina
Abstract
29.1 Introduction
29.2 The Study Area
29.3 Data and Methods
29.3.1 Hazard Assessment
29.3.2 Severe Storms and Their Impacts
29.3.3 Social Vulnerability
29.4 Results
29.4.1 Hazard Detection
29.4.2 Storms Classification
29.4.3 Total Impacts
29.4.4 Vulnerability Analysis
29.4.5 Overall Risk Analysis
29.5 Discussion and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
30 Modelling and Mapping Landslide Susceptibility of Darjeeling Himalaya Using Geospatial Technology
Abstract
30.1 Introduction
30.2 The Study Area
30.3 Materials and Methods
30.3.1 Preparation of Landslide Inventory and Landslide Conditioning Thematic Data Layers
30.3.2 Application of LNRF and SI Models for Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
30.3.2.1 Landslide Nominal/Normal/Numerical Risk Factor (LNRF)
30.3.2.2 Statistical Index (SI) Method
30.4 Result and Discussion
30.4.1 Relationship Between Landslide Causative Factors and Landslide Occurrences
30.4.1.1 Geomorphological Factors and Landslides
30.4.1.2 Lithological Factors and Landslides
30.4.1.3 Hydrological Factors and Landslides
30.4.1.4 Environmental Factors and Landslides
30.4.2 Models Development and LSZ Mappings
30.4.3 Validation and Accuracy Assessments of the LSZ Maps
30.4.3.1 Validation of LSZ Maps Using ROC Curve
30.4.3.2 Validation of LSZ Maps Using FR Value
30.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
31 Climate Change Induced Coastal Hazards and Community Vulnerability in Indian Sundarban
Abstract
31.1 Introduction
31.2 The Study Area
31.3 Database and Methodology
31.4 Results and Analysis
31.4.1 The Issues of Climate Change, Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability
31.4.2 The Demographic Attributes
31.4.2.1 Population Growth and Density
31.4.2.2 Poverty and Concentration of BPL Populace in Sundarban
31.4.3 Living with the Edge in Climate Change-Induced Hazardous Situation
31.4.4 Climate Change-Induced Community Vulnerability: A Micro-level Study
31.5 Discussion
31.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
32 Sea-Level Changes Along Bangladesh Coast: How Much Do We Know About It?
Abstract
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Causes of Sea-Level Change
32.2.1 Global Causes
32.2.2 Regional Causes
32.2.3 Local Process
32.3 Global Sea-Level Change
32.4 Regional Sea-Level Changes
32.5 Sea-Level Changes in Bangladesh
32.5.1 Past Sea-Level Change
32.5.2 Current Sea-Level Trends
32.5.3 Future Sea-Level Projections
32.6 Issues and Challenges
32.6.1 Reliability on Proxy Data
32.6.2 Accuracy of Tidal Data
32.6.3 Measurement of Subsidence
32.6.4 Measurement of Sedimentation
32.6.5 Regional Tectonic
32.6.6 Himalayan Cryospheric Impact
32.6.7 Hydro-Meteorological Impact
32.6.8 Ocean Dynamics
32.6.9 Human Interventions
32.6.10 Impact of Climate Change
32.7 Discussion
32.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
33 Assessing Channel Migration, Bank Erosion Vulnerability and Suitable Human Habitation Sites in the Torsa River Basin of Eastern India Using AHP Model and Geospatial Technology
Abstract
33.1 Introduction
33.2 The Study Area
33.3 Materials and Methods
33.3.1 Suitability Factors for Human Habitation
33.3.2 Generation of Suitability Maps
33.3.3 Analysis of Suitability Factors
33.3.4 Standardization of Criteria Maps
33.3.5 Criteria Wise Weight Calculation
33.4 Result and Discussion
33.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
34 Spatiotemporal Assessment of Drought Intensity and Trend Along with Change Point: A Study on Bankura District, West Bengal, India
Abstract
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Materials and Methods
34.2.1 Data Sources
34.2.2 Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI)
34.2.2.1 Phase and Periodicity Estimation by Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)
34.2.2.2 Peak (PID) and Average Drought Intensity (MID)
34.2.2.3 Mann Kendal Trend Test (MK Test)
34.2.2.4 Sen’s Slope Estimator
34.2.2.5 Analysis of the Homogeneity Using Kruskal-Walis Test
34.2.2.6 Estimation of Change of Drought as a Percentage of Mean
34.3 Results and Discussion
34.4 Conclusions
References
35 Landslide Susceptibility Assessment and Management Using Advanced Hybrid Machine Learning Algorithms in Darjeeling Himalaya, India
Abstract
35.1 Introduction
35.2 The Study Area
35.3 Materials and Methods
35.3.1 Data Acquisition and Their Source
35.3.2 Inventory Map of Landslides (IML)
35.3.3 Selecting the LS Condition Factors (LSCFs)
35.3.3.1 Hydrological Factors
35.3.3.2 Topographical Factors
35.3.3.3 Geomorphologic and Soil-Based Factors
35.3.3.4 Environment Based Factors
35.3.4 Multi-collinearity Analysis
35.3.5 Hybrid Machine Learning Algorithm
35.3.5.1 Radial Basis Function Neural Network (RBF Net)
35.3.5.2 Naïve-Bayes Tree (NB Tree)
35.3.5.3 Random Subspace (Ran Sub)
35.3.5.4 Rotational Forest (RoTF)
35.3.6 Validation Methods
35.3.6.1 Threshold Dependent Method ROC
35.3.6.2 Statistical Techniques MSE and RMSE
35.4 Results and Discussion
35.4.1 Multi-collinearity Analysis
35.4.2 Landslide Susceptibility Maps
35.4.3 Models Performance Validation
35.5 Discussion
35.5.1 Comparison of Models’ Predictive Performance
35.5.2 Contribution of LSCFs Analyzed by RF
35.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
36 Predicting the Landslide Susceptibility in Eastern Sikkim Himalayan Region, India Using Boosted Regression Tree and REPTree Machine Learning Techniques
Abstract
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Study Area
36.3 Material and Methods
36.3.1 Landslide Inventory Map (LIM)
36.3.2 Database and Preparation of Landslide Causative Factor
36.3.3 Selection of Landslide Causing Factors (LCFs)
36.3.3.1 Multicollinearity Analysis
36.3.3.2 Information Gain Ratio (IGR)
36.3.4 Models Used for Modeling the Landslide Susceptibility
36.3.4.1 Boosted Regression Tree (BRTree)
36.3.4.2 Reduced Error Pruning Tree (REPTree)
36.3.5 Model Validation Methods
36.3.5.1 Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) Curve
36.3.5.2 RMSE and MAE
36.4 Results
36.4.1 Analyzing the Multicollinearity
36.4.2 Selecting Significant Landslide Causing Factors (LCFs) by IGR
36.4.3 Analysis of Landslide Susceptibility Map (LSM)
36.4.4 Model Validation
36.4.4.1 Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) Curve
36.4.4.2 Analyzing the Results of RMSE and MAE
36.5 Discussion
36.6 Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
References
37 An Exploratory Analysis of Mountaineering Risk Estimation Among the Mountaineers in the Indian Himalaya
Abstract
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Database and Methodology
37.2.1 Sample Selection
37.2.2 Diagnosis of Risk Agglomeration Using Hierarchical Clustering Technique
37.2.3 Frequency Distribution, ANOVA, and Post-hoc Tests
37.2.4 Risk Estimation of Mountaineering Tourism
37.3 Results
37.3.1 Descriptive Statistics of Several Risks in Indian Himalaya
37.3.2 ANOVA and Post Hoc Tukey Test
37.3.3 Risk Factors Agglomeration
37.3.4 Classification of Mountaineering Risks
37.4 Discussions
37.5 Conclusion
References