Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy: Concepts and Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction to Microorganisms and Pathogenesis
1.1 Introduction: Microorganisms
1.1.1 Bacteria
1.1.2 Archaea
1.1.3 Fungi
1.1.4 Protozoa
1.1.5 Viruses
1.2 Pathogenicity of Microorganisms
1.3 Interaction between Host and Microbe
1.3.1 Mutualism
1.3.2 Commensalism
1.3.3 Parasitism
1.4 Traces of Infection and Its Development
1.4.1 Adhesion
1.4.2 Internalisation
1.4.3 Colonisation
1.4.4 Mechanism for Microbial Secretion
1.5 Microbe-Related Infections
1.5.1 Bacterial Infections
1.5.2 Fungal Infections
1.5.3 Virus Infections
1.6 Factors Related to Virulence with Microbial Infections
1.6.1 Extracellular Virulence Factors
1.6.2 Virulence Factors Specific to Cells
1.7 General Characteristics of Acquired/Adaptive and Innate Immunity
1.7.1 Immune Response against Pathogens
1.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Conventional Treatments Modalities for Bacterial Infection
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mode of Antibiotic Resistance Development in Bacteria
2.3 Phage Therapy
2.4 Nanomedicine
2.5 Antibiotic Adjuvant
2.6 Semisynthetic and Fully Synthetic Antibiotics
2.7 Antimicrobial Peptide
2.8 Human Antimicrobial Peptide LL-37
2.9 Combination Therapy
2.10 Microbiome Manipulation
2.11 Antivirulence Drugs
2.12 Essential Oils against Bacterial Biofilm
2.13 Vaccine
2.14 Monoclonal Antibody
2.15 Crispr-Cas9 System
2.16 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Microbial Biofilms: Medical Importance and Management
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Infections Associated with Biofilm
3.2.1 Protein Adhesions
3.2.2 Adhesive Pili
3.2.3 Amyloid Fibres
3.2.4 Accumulation-Associated Protein
3.3 Structure of Biofilm
3.3.1 Biofilm Formation of Living Tissues
3.4 Device-Related Infection
3.5 Nosocomial Infection due to Pathogenic Biofilm
3.6 Management of Biofilm Formation
3.6.1 Antipathogenic Agents—Targeting Quorum Sensing
3.6.2 Inhibition through Biofilm Disassembly
3.6.3 Antibiofilm Antibiotics
3.6.4 Probiotic Products against the Different Pathogenic Biofilms
3.6.4.1 Probiotics Resists Biofilm Formation
3.6.4.2 Probiotics Resists Biofilm Formation of Diarrhoea-causing Pathogens
3.6.4.3 Prevention of Dental Biofilms by Probiotics
3.6.4.4 Prevention of Wound Biofilm by Probiotics
3.6.5 Matrix Targeting Enzymes
3.6.6 Biofilm Inhibition by Metal Ions
3.6.7 Antimicrobial Mechanisms of Nanometals
3.7 Current Treatment Processes—Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Agents
3.8 Treatment by Bacteriophages
3.9 Future Challenges
References
Chapter 4: Bacterial Persister Cells and Medical Importance
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Bacterial Persistence and Persisters
4.2.1 Resistence and Persistence
4.2.2 Persistence and the Emergence of Drug Resistance
4.3 Persister Cell Dormancy
4.4 Mechanism of Persister Formation
4.4.1 Toxin-Antitoxin (TA) System
4.4.2 (p)ppGpp
4.4.3 Phosphate Metabolism
4.4.4 SOS Response
4.5 Factors Triggering Persister Formation
4.6 Persister Cell Infection
4.7 Resuscitation of Persister Cells
4.7.1 Sensing of Nutrients
4.7.2 Chemotaxis
4.7.3 Ribosomal Resuscitation
4.8 Strategies to Control Persistence
4.8.1 Killing of Persister Cells
4.8.2 Persister Cell Sensitisation
4.8.3 Combination Therapy
4.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Alternative Strategies for Combating Antibiotic Resistance in Microorganisms
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Antibiotic Resistance: A Global Scenario
5.1.2 Impact of Antibiotic Resistance on Public Health and Global Economy
5.1.3 Mechanism of Antibiotic Resistance
5.2 Factors Associated with Antibiotic Drug Resistance
5.2.1 Role of Quorum-Sensing and Biofilm Mechanics on Antibiotic Resistance
5.2.2 Effect of Multidrug Efflux Transport Machinery
5.2.3 Anthropogenic and Environmental Parameters Responsible for Drug Resistance
5.3 Evidence-based Alternative Therapeutic Approaches against Antibiotic Resistance
5.3.1 Targeting Antimicrobial-resistant Enzymes
5.3.2 Targeting Antimicrobial-resistant Bacteria
5.3.2.1 Phage Therapy
5.3.2.2 Attenuation of Quorum Sensing as a Therapeutic Module for Drug Resistance Management
5.3.2.3 Role of Biofilm Blockers in Combating Antibiotic Resistance
5.3.2.4 Efflux Pump Inhibitors (EPIS) as Promising Strategies to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance
5.3.2.5 Antimicrobial Peptides against Drug Resistance
5.3.3 Nano-based Drug Delivery Systems for Effective Clearance of Drug Resistance
5.3.4 Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (APDT) against Drug Resistance
5.4 Current Trends and Future Avenues in Alternative Therapeutic Modules in Combating Antibiotic Resistance
5.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 6: Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT) and Mechanism
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview of Photodynamic Therapy
6.3 Importance of Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT)
6.4 Photochemical Mechanism of aPDT
6.4.1 Type I and II PDT Mechanism
6.5 Intracellular Targets of aPDT
6.5.1 Cell Wall and Membrane
6.5.2 Proteins
6.5.3 Lipid Peroxides
6.5.4 DNA
6.5.5 Lysosomes and Mitochondria
6.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Applications of Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT)
7.1 Introduction
7.2 aPDT Mode of Action
7.3 aPDT Photosynthesizers (PS)
7.4 Nanoparticles as PS for aPDT
7.5 aPDT-BASED Combinatory Therapy with Antibiotics
7.6 Hydrogels and Liposomes as a Drug Delivery System
7.7 Approaches to Enhance aPDT
7.8 Conclusion
Conflicts of Interest
Ethical Approval
Author Contributions
Acknowledgement
References
Chapter 8: Photosensitisers and their Role in Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy
8.1 Introduction
8.2 A Brief History of aPDT
8.3 Advantages of aPDT
8.4 Types of Photosensitisers used in aPDT
8.4.1 Phenothiaziniums
8.4.2 Porphyrins
8.4.3 Phthalocyanine, Xanthene, and Fullerene Derivatives
8.4.4 Natural Photosensitisers in aPDT
8.4.4.1 Curcuminoids
8.4.4.2 Alkaloids
8.4.4.3 Hypericin
8.4.4.4 Flavins
8.5 The Bacterial Response against aPDT
8.5.1 Oxidative Stress Defence Enzyme
8.5.2 Expression of Efflux Pumps
8.6 Future Perspectives and Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Natural Photosensitisers for Antimicrobial Therapy
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Criteria for Photosensitisers
9.2.1 Photosensitiser Molecule Criteria
9.3 Types of Photosensitising Reactions
9.3.1 Type I Photosensitised Oxidation Reactions
9.3.2 Type II Photosensitised Oxidation Reactions
9.4 Major Implications of aPDT
9.4.1 Photosensitiser Activation
9.5 Natural Photosensitisers for Antimicrobial Therapy
9.5.1 Synthetic Derivatives of Natural Products as Photosensitisers
9.6 Limitations in Antimicrobial Therapy
9.6.1 Limitation of aPDT against Different Bacteria
9.6.2 Failure in Target Selection
9.6.3 Solubility and Cell Target Penetration
9.7 New Approaches to Overcome Limitations
9.7.1 Nanotechnology-Assisted Photosensitisers
9.7.2 Carbon Quantum Dots as Photosensitisers
9.7.3 Photosensitiser-Loaded Hydrogels and Composite Biopolymer Film
9.7.4 Sonodynamic Therapy (SDT) for Enhanced Efficiency
9.7.5 In Silico Computational Analysis
9.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Nanostructures in Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Antimicrobial Concepts of Photodynamic Therapy
10.2.1 Advantages of Photodynamic Therapy
10.2.2 Limitations in Photodynamic Therapy
10.3 Nanomaterials in aPDT
10.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes
10.3.2 Fullerenes
10.3.2.1 In vitro PDT with Fullerenes
10.3.2.2 In vivo PDT with Fullerenes
10.4 Applications of Metal Nanoparticles
10.4.1 Gold
10.4.2 Silver
10.4.3 Copper
10.4.4 Other Applications
10.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Photodynamic Antimicrobial Chemotherapy: Advancements and Applications
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Photodynamic Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (PACT)
11.3 Prevalence of Infectious Diseases
11.4 Antimicrobial Drug Resistance (AMR)
11.4.1 Causes of AMR
11.4.2 Newer Treatment Strategies to Combat AMR
11.5 PACT and AMR
11.5.1 Type I Mechanism
11.5.2 Type II Mechanism
11.5.3 Interactions between Oxidative Stress Induced by PDT and Bacteria
11.5.4 Development of Resistance towards PACT
11.6 Light Resources for PACT
11.7 Sources of Photosensitisers
11.7.1 Phenothiazinium Derivatives
11.7.2 Porphyrin Derivatives
11.7.3 Fullerene Derivatives
11.7.4 Riboflavin Derivatives
11.7.5 Curcumin Derivatives
11.8 Bioconjugate Methods to Produce Efficient ROS
11.9 Antibiotics in PACT
11.10 Applications of PACT
11.10.1 Dentistry
11.10.2 Dermatology
11.10.3 Microbial Inactivation and Biofilm Formation
11.10.4 Implants
11.10.5 Fungal Infections
11.10.6 Viral Infections
11.10.7 Skin Burns
11.10.8 Disinfection and Surface Sterilisation
11.10.9 Water Purification
11.10.10 Aquaculture
11.10.11 PACT and Cancer
11.11 PDT in Combination with Chemotherapy
11.12 PDT in Combination with Radiotherapy
11.13 Future Directions
11.14 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation of Oral Bacteria
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Oral Microbial Diseases
12.2.1 Caries and Pulpitis
12.2.2 Apthous Ulcer
12.2.3 Acute Necrotising Ulcerative Gingivitis
12.2.4 Thrush (Candidiasis)
12.2.5 Chronic Periodontitis and Gingivitis
12.2.6 Dental Abscess
12.3 Mechanism of Bacterial Infection in the Oral Cavity
12.4 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
12.4.1 Photosensitiser (PS)
12.4.2 Mechanisms of Light Sources, Oxygen (O 2), and ROS Generation for Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy
12.4.2.1 Light Sources
12.4.2.2 Oxygen (O 2) and ROS Generation
12.5 Mechanism of Natural Photosensitisers against Oral Pathogens
12.6 Studies on the Application of aPDT in Oral Bacterial Infections
12.7 Advantages and Limitations
12.7.1 No Microbial Resistance
12.7.2 Short Treatment Duration
12.7.3 Non-Toxicity
12.7.4 Enhancement of Host Immune Response
12.8 Future Scope
References
Index