Analytical Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence: From Fundamentals to Bioassays

Copyright
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Preface: Preface
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Contents: Contents
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Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview of Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamentals of Electrochemistry and Photophysics for ECL
1.2.1 Basic Electrochemical Principles
1.2.2 Basic Photophysical Principles
1.2.3 Energetics and Kinetics
1.3 Mechanistic Pathways of ECL
1.3.1 Electron-transfer Reactions Involving the Luminophore
1.3.1.1 The Annihilation Pathway
1.3.1.2 Coreactant Pathway: A Tandem System
1.3.2 Bond-breaking Reactions Within the Luminophore Frame
1.3.2 Bond-breaking Reactions Within the Luminophore Frame
1.3.3 Hot Electron-induced ECL
1.4 Key Protagonists in the ECL
1.4.1 Luminophores
1.4.2 Coreactants
1.4.3 Electrode Materials
1.5 Analytical Applications
1.5.1 Analytical Strategies
1.5.2 Bioassays
1.6 Conclusion
References
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Chapter 2: Energetic and Kinetic Aspects of ECL Generation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Energetics of ECL Reactants Annihilation
2.3 ECL Emission from the Lowest Excited Triplet State
2.3 ECL Emission from the Lowest Excited Triplet State
2.4 ECL Emission from the Lowest Excited Singlet State
2.4 ECL Emission from the Lowest Excited Singlet State
2.5 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
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Chapter 3: Efficient ECL Luminophores
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Inorganic Systems
3.2.1 Ru(bpy)32+ and Its Derivatives
3.2.2 Cyclometalated Iridium(iii) Complexes
3.2.3 Other Metal Complexes
3.3 Organic Systems
3.3.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
3.3.2 Fluorescent Dyes and their Derivatives
3.4 Conclusion
References
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Chapter 4: Electrochemiluminescence Coreactants
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Oxidative-Reduction Coreactants
4.2.1 Oxalate (C2O42-) System
4.2.2 Tri-n-propylamine (TPA)
4.2.3 2-(Dibutylamino)ethanol (DBAE)
4.2.4 Other Amine-related Coreactants
4.2.4.1 Amino Acids and Peptides
4.2.4.2 Nucleic Acids
4.2.4.3 NADH
4.2.4.4 Alkaloids and Pharmaceuticals
4.2.4.5 Pesticides
4.2.4.6 Amines with Aromatic Diol Group
4.2.4.7 Hydrazine and Relative Derivatives
4.2.5 Organic Acids/Alcohols and Relative Derivatives
4.2.5.1 Pyruvate
4.2.5.2 Hydroxyl Carboxylic Acid and Related Derivatives
4.2.5.3 Alcohol
4.2.5.4 Other Organic Molecules
4.2.6 QDs
4.2.7 Sulphite
4.3 Reductive-Oxidative Coreactants
4.3.1 Peroxydisulfate
4.3.2 Oxygen
4.3.3 Hydrogen Peroxide
4.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
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Chapter 5: Theoretical Concepts Underlying ECL Generation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theory: Mathematical Modelling and Computing
5.3 Theory of Transient and Steady-state ECL at Dual Hemi-cylinder Electrode Assemblies
5.4 Simulations of ECL in Coreactant Systems
5.5 Theoretical Modelling and Optimization of ECL from Ru2+-doped, Immobilised Silica Nanoparticles
5.5 Theoretical Modelling and Optimization of ECL from Ru2+-doped, Immobilised Silica Nanoparticles
5.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
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Chapter 6: The Essential Role of Electrode Materials in ECL Applications
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Noble Electrode Materials: Platinum and Gold
6.3 Carbon-based Materials
6.4 Transparent Electrodes
6.5 Paper-based Materials and Disposable Electrodes
6.6 Boron-doped Diamond (BDD) Electrodes
6.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
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Chapter 7: Wireless ECL Generation Based on Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Fundamentals of Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.3 Bipolar Electrochemistry Classification
7.3.1 Open Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.3.2 Closed Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.3.3 Wireless Powered and Self-powered Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.3.3 Wireless Powered and Self-powered Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.3.4 Split Bipolar Electrochemistry
7.4 BPE-ECL Sensing
7.4.1 The Analyte Is ECL-related or Coupled with the ECL Reaction at the Opposite Pole
7.4.2 Analytes Can Be Transferred to the ECL-related or ECL-coupled Substances
7.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
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Chapter 8: Multicolour Electrochemiluminescence
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Electrochemiluminescent Iridium Complexes
8.3 Multicolour ECL from Mixtures of Emitters
8.4 Single Component Multicolour ECL
8.5 Multicolour ECL from Nanomaterials
8.6 Multicolour Bipolar ECL
8.7 Instrumental Aspects of Multicolour ECL
8.8 Conclusion
References
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Chapter 9: ECL of Nanomaterials: Novel Materials, Detection Strategies and Applications
9.1 Introduction and Background
9.2 Electrochemiluminescence Using Nanomaterials
9.3 Quantum Dots and Colloidal Semiconductor Nanocrystals
9.3 Quantum Dots and Colloidal Semiconductor Nanocrystals
9.4 Carbon and Composite Nanomaterials
9.5 Inorganic Nanoparticles
9.6 Metal Nanoparticles
9.7 Doped Silica Nanoparticles
9.8 Metal-Organic Frameworks
9.9 ‘MolecularÇ Nanomaterials
9.9.1 DNA Nanotubes
9.9.2 Molecular Microcrystals
9.9.3 Polymer Quantum Dots
9.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
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Chapter 10: ECL Detection of Nanoparticles
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Theoretical and Experimental Background
10.2.1 Electrochemistry Procedures of Nanoparticles
10.2.2 Fundamentals of ECL
10.2.3 ECL Detection Instrumentation
10.3 ECL Detection of Various Nanoparticles
10.3.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles
10.3.1.1 Elemental Semiconductor Nanoparticles
10.3.1.2 Metal Chalcogenide Nanoparticles
10.3.1.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
10.3.2 Metal Nanoparticles
10.3.3 Carbon Nanoparticles
10.4 Summary and Outlook
References
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Chapter 11: Single Entity Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence
11.1 Introduction
11.2 ECL of Nano-entities
11.2.1 ECL from Single 9,10-Diphenylanthracene Molecules in Solution
11.2.2 Single Nanoparticle ECL
11.2.2.1 ECL of Poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-co-benzothiadiazole) Nanoparticles
11.2.2.1 ECL of Poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-co-benzothiadiazole) Nanoparticles
11.2.2.2 ECL from Individual Au Nanoparticles
11.3 Sub-micron and Micron Sized Entities
11.3.1 Sub-micron Toluene Droplets in Water
11.3.2 Polystyrene Microbead Decorated with Ru(bpy)32+
11.3.3 Cells Labelled with Ruthenium Ru(bpy)32+
11.4 Conclusion
References
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Chapter 12: Enzymatic Assays
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Enzymes and ECL Reaction Coupling
12.2.1 Enzyme Commission Number (EC)
12.2.2 ECL Biosensing Systems with Oxidizing Enzymes
12.2.2.1 Oxidases and Luminol ECL Reactions
12.2.2.2 Dehydrogenases and Ruthenium ECL Reactions
12.2.3 ECL Biosensing Systems with other Enzymes
12.2.3.1 Proteases
12.2.3.2 Kinases and Phosphatases
12.2.3.3 Enzymes Active on DNA (Nucleases, Demethylases and Methylases)
12.2.3.3 Enzymes Active on DNA (Nucleases, Demethylases and Methylases)
12.2.3.4 Glycosyl Transferases
12.2.3.5 Superoxide Dismutase
12.2.3.6 Cytochromes P450
12.3 Enzymatic ECL Systems Without Nanomaterials
12.3.1 Luminophores in Solution
12.3.1.1 Bioassays
12.3.1.2 Biosensors
12.3.2 Immobilized luminophores
12.3.2.1 Bioassays
12.3.2.2 Biosensors
12.3.2.2.1 Ruthenium immobilization
12.3.2.2.2 Luminol Entrapment
12.3.2.2.3 Polymeric Luminol
12.3.2.2.4 Other Luminophores (Porphyrins)
12.4 More Recent Enzymatic ECL Systems with Nanomaterials
12.4 More Recent Enzymatic ECL Systems with Nanomaterials
12.4.1 Luminophores in Solution
12.4.1.1 Gold Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites
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12.4.1.2 Silver Nanocomposites
12.4.1.3 Titanate Nanotubes and Nanocomposites of TiO2
12.4.1.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles
12.4.1.5 Carbon-based Nanomaterials (CNTs, Graphene Sheets etc.)
12.4.1.5 Carbon-based Nanomaterials (CNTs, Graphene Sheets etc.)
12.4.2 Luminophore Co-immobilized with the Nanomaterials (Reagent-less Biosensors)
12.4.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites
12.4.2.2 Silver Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites
12.4.2.3 Silica Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites
12.4.2.4 Carbon-based Nanomaterials (CNTs, Graphene Sheets, etc.)
12.4.2.4 Carbon-based Nanomaterials (CNTs, Graphene Sheets, etc.)
12.4.3 Electroluminescent Nanomaterials
12.4.3.1 Cadmium-based QDs (CdS, CdSe, CdTe)
12.4.3.2 Nanocomposites with Cadmium- or Zinc-based QDs (ZnS, CdS, CdSe, CdTe)
12.4.3.3 TiO2 Nanocrystals and Nanocomposites
12.4.3.4 Carbon-based Quantum Dots
12.4.3.5 Carbon Nitride-based Quantum Dots
12.4.3.6 Polymer Dots
12.4.3.7 More Complex QDs
12.5 New Trends
12.5.1 Bipolar Electrode (BPE) Systems
12.5.2 Ratiometric Systems
12.6 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
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Chapter 13: DNA-based ECL Assays
13.1 Introduction
13.2 General Sensing Strategies in DNA-based ECL Assays
13.2 General Sensing Strategies in DNA-based ECL Assays
13.2.1 Recognition Chemistries
13.2.2 Signalling Approaches and Signal Amplification Strategies
13.2.2 Signalling Approaches and Signal Amplification Strategies
13.2.2.1 Label-based and Label-free Signalling Approaches
13.2.2.2 Signal Amplification Strategies
13.2.2.2.1 Nanomaterials-based Signal Amplification
13.2.2.2.2 Nucleic Acid-based Amplification
13.2.2.2.2.1 RCA-based Signal Amplification
13.2.2.2.2.2 HCR-based Signal Amplification
13.2.2.2.3 DNA Nanostructure-based Signal Amplification
13.2.2.2.3.1 DNA Tetrahedron-based Signal Amplification
13.2.2.2.3.2 DNA Machine-based Signal Amplification
13.2.3 General Biosensing Formats of DNA-based ECL Assays
13.2.3.1 Signal-on Sensing Format
13.2.3.1.1 Signal-On Induced by Introduction of Luminophores
13.2.3.1.2 Signal-on Induced by Release of the Quenchers
13.2.3.1.3 Signal-on Regulated by ECL Coreaction
13.2.3.2 Signal-off Sensing Format
13.2.3.2.1 Signal-off Induced by ECL Quencher
13.2.3.2.2 Signal-off Induced by Release of Luminophores
13.2.3.2.3 Signal-off Induced by Consumption of Coreactants
13.2.3.3 Electrochemiluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (ECL-RET)
13.3 Analytical Applications
13.3.1 Detection of Nucleic acids
13.3.1.1 Detection of DNA
13.3.1.2 Detection of miRNA
13.3.1.3 Detection of Proteins
13.3.1.4 Detection of Enzymes and Enzyme activities
13.3.1.5 Detection of Small Molecules
13.3.1.6 Detection of Metal Ions
13.3.1.7 Detection of Cancer Cells
13.3.1.8 ECL Imaging
13.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
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Chapter 14: Microfluidic ECL and Voltammetric Arrays for Metabolite-related DNA Damage
14.1 Introduction
14.2 A Brief History of DNA Damage Assays
14.3 Microfluidic Arrays for DNA Adduction
14.4 ECL and Electrochemical Arrays to Measure DNA Oxidation
14.5 Microfluidic Arrays to Measure both DNA Adduction and Oxidation
14.6 Summary and Outlook for the Future
Acknowledgments
References
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Chapter 15: Automated Immunoassays for the Detection of Biomarkers in Body Fluids
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Instrumentation
15.2.1 Components of a cobas e Immunoassay Analyzer
15.2.2 Elecsys® Measuring Cell
15.2.3 Detection Cycle
15.3 ECL Mechanism
15.4 Additives
15.4.1 Carbonic Acid Amides
15.4.2 Boric Acid
15.4.3 Combination of Propanamide and Boric Acid
15.5 Label Chemistry
15.5.1 Ruthenium Labels
15.5.2 Iridium Labels
15.5.3 Conjugation Methods
15.6 Elecsys® Immunoassays
15.6.1 Sandwich Assays
15.6.2 Double Antigen Sandwich Assays
15.6.3 Competitive Assays
15.6.4 Back-titration Binding Assays
15.6.5 ç-Capture Assays
15.6.6 Combined Assays
15.6.7 Elecsys® Assay Menu
15.7 Conclusions
References
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Chapter 16: Electrochemiluminescence Imaging
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Apparatus of ECL Imaging
16.2 Applications of ECL Imaging for Bioassays
16.2.1 Immunoassays
16.2.2 Genotoxicity Screening
16.2.3 Enzyme-based Bioanalysis
16.3 ECL Imaging of Single Objects
16.3.1 Single Cells
16.3.2 Single Particles
16.4 Bipolar Electrodes for ECL Imaging
16.5 Conclusion
References