Alternative Proteins: Safety and Food Security Considerations

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
About the Editor
Contributors
1. Trends and Motivations for Novel Protein Sources and Contribution towards Food Security
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Trends and Motivations for Novel Protein Sources
1.2.1 Health Improvement
1.2.2 Cost and Availability of Protein
1.2.3 Environmental Impact
1.2.4 Food Transition and Justice
1.2.5 Other Factors
1.3 Novel Proteins to Improve Food Security and Sustainability
1.3.1 Food Security
1.3.2 Aging Population and Chronic Disease
1.3.3 Alternative Protein Sources and Sustainability
1.3.4 Food Choice Changes
1.4 The Challenges of Novel Proteins
1.4.1 Challenges with In Vitro Meats as a Protein Source
1.4.2 Challenges with Edible Insects as a Protein Source
1.5 Key Aspects of Novel Protein Sources
1.5.1 Food Safety Aspects
1.5.2 Health and Nutritional Aspects
1.5.3 Technological Aspects
1.5.4 Environmental and Ethical Aspects
1.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgement and Declaration
References
2. Plant Proteins
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Development of Hunting Skill and Physiological Adaptation to Dietary Changes
2.1.2 Animal Protein Versus Plant Protein Consumption in the Future
2.2 Animal Protein and Plant Protein-Based Diets
2.2.1 Adequacy of Vegetarian Diets
2.2.2 Complementary Plant Proteins to Meet Essential Amino Acids Requirements
2.2.3 A Healthy Rationale for Plant-Based Proteins
2.2.4 Dietary Habits of Related Species
2.2.4.1 Differences in Protein Intake and GI Anatomy between Humans and Other Primates
2.2.4.2 Comparative Diet of Domestic and Feral Pigs to Humans, Given Comparable GI Tracts
2.2.4.3 Commercial Swine Feeding as Evidence of the Efficacy of Plant-Based Proteins
2.3 Protein Quality
2.3.1 The Protein Efficiency Ratio
2.3.2 The Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score
2.3.3 Application of the PDCAAS
2.4 Legumes (Soybeans and Pulse Crops: Peas, Chickpeas, Common Beans and Faba Beans, Lentils)
2.4.1 World Legume Production
2.4.2 Soybeans
2.4.2.1 Purported Health Benefits of Soy Protein Consumption
2.4.2.2 Amino Acid Composition of Soy Protein
2.4.2.3 Digestibility of Soy Protein
2.4.3 Peas
2.4.3.1 Protein and Amino Acid Composition of Peas
2.4.3.2 Pea Flours, Concentrates and Isolates
2.4.3.3 Pea Protein Digestibility
2.4.4 Chickpeas
2.4.4.1 Culinary Uses of Chickpeas and the Effect of Cooking on Nutrient Availability
2.4.4.2 Protein and Amino Acid Composition of Chickpeas
2.4.4.3 Chickpea Protein Digestibility
2.4.5 Common Beans and Faba Beans
2.4.5.1 Utility of Beans and the Effect of Antinutritional Factors on Protein Digestibility
2.4.5.2 Protein and Amino Acid Composition of Beans
2.4.5.3 The Presence of Antinutritional Factors and Their Effect on Protein Digestibility
2.4.5.4 Processing Methods That Alter Antinutritional Activity
2.4.6 Lentils
2.4.6.1 The Protein Content of Lentils
2.4.6.2 The Amino Acid Balance of Lentils
2.4.6.3 The Presence of Bioactive Peptides in Lentils
2.4.6.4 Antinutritional Factors and Their Effect on Protein Digestibility
2.4.7 Cereals and Pseudo-cereals
2.4.7.1 Corn Utilization in World Food, Feed and Industrial Markets
2.4.7.2 Wheat Utilization in World Food, Feed and Industrial Markets
2.4.7.3 Rice Utilization in the World Food Market
2.4.7.4 Barley Utilization in World Food and Feed Markets
2.4.7.5 Sorghum Utilization in World Food, Feed and Industrial Markets
2.4.7.6 Oats Utilization in the World Food and Feed Markets
2.4.8 The Pseudo-cereals
2.4.8.1 Consumption of the Pseudo-cereals
2.4.8.2 Complementarity of the Cereal and Pseudo-cereal Protein to Other Plant Protein
2.4.8.3 Protein Content and Limiting Essential Amino Acids in the Cereals and Pseudo-cereals
2.4.8.4 Protein Quality in the Cereals and Pseudo-cereals
2.4.8.5 Antinutritional Factors in the Cereals and Pseudo-cereals
2.5 Nuts and Seeds
2.5.1 Ground Nuts and Tree Nuts
2.5.2 Chia Seeds and Sunflower Seeds
2.5.3 Protein Content and Limiting Amino Acids in Nuts
2.5.4 Protein Content and Limiting Amino Acids in Seeds
2.5.5 Antinutritional Factors and Their Effect on Protein Digestibility in Nuts and Seeds
2.6 Vegetables
2.6.1 Antinutritional Factors in Vegetables
2.6.2 Protein and Limiting Amino Acids in Vegetables
2.6.3 Vegetable Protein Digestibility
2.7 Summary
References
3. Single-Cell Protein - A Group of Alternative Proteins
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Production of SCP
3.2.1 Suitable Strain Selection
3.2.2 Fermentation
3.2.3 Harvesting
3.2.4 SCP Processing for Food
3.3 Major Microbial Sources
3.3.1 Fungi
3.3.2 Yeast
3.3.3 Algae
3.3.4 Bacteria
3.4 Applications of SCP
3.4.1 Health and Nutrition
3.4.2 Therapeutic, Natural Medicine and Cosmetic Products
3.4.2.1 Food Production
3.4.2.2 Cosmetic Products and Other Industries
3.5 Advantages of SCP
3.5.1 High Rate of Multiplication
3.5.2 Genetic Modification
3.5.3 Variety of Raw Material
3.5.4 Independence of Climatic Conditions and Environment Friendship
3.6 Disadvantages of SCP
3.6.1 High Level of Nucleic Acids
3.6.2 Allergic Reactions and Toxic Metabolites
3.6.3 Health Condition Developments
3.6.4 Cost of Production
3.7 Conversion of Food Wastes to SCP
3.8 Recent Advances in SCP and Future Aspects
3.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgement and Declaration
References
4. Algae as an Alternative Source of Protein
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Algal Species Evaluated as Sources of Protein
4.3 Protein Quality
4.4 Protein Extraction Methods
4.4.1 Cell Disintegration Methods for Protein Extraction
4.4.1.1 Mechanical and Physical Techniques for Protein Extraction
4.4.1.2 Chemical Techniques of Cell Disintegration
4.4.1.3 Cell Disintegration Methods Using Enzymes
4.4.1.4 Cell Disruption Using a Combination of Different Methods
4.5 Recovery and Fractionation of Protein from Micro-algae Extracts
4.6 Analysis and Quantification of Micro-algae Extracted Protein
4.7 Digestibility of Algae Protein
4.8 Use of Algae Proteins as Animal Feed
4.9 Safety of Micro-algae Extracted Proteins
4.10 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
5. Insect-Derived Protein as Food and Feed
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Development Challenges of Livestock Production as a Protein Source
5.1.2 Development Challenges of Plant and Poultry Production as Protein Sources
5.1.3 Current Sources of Protein
5.1.4 Insects as an Alternative Food Source
5.2 Insect Proteins
5.3 Some Important Insect Species and Their Utilization as a Protein Source in Animals Feeding
5.3.1 Black Soldier Fly Larvae (H. illucens) and Its Protein
5.3.1.1 Utilization of BSF in Animals Feeding
5.3.1.2 Challenges Associated with the Utilization of BSF in Animals Feed
5.3.2 Housefly and Its Protein
5.3.2.1 Utilization of Housefly in Animals Feeding
5.3.3 Silkworm Pupae and Its Protein
5.3.3.1 Utilization of Silkworm Pupae in Animals Feeding
5.3.4 Mealworm (T. molitor) and Its Protein
5.3.5 Cricket and Its Protein
5.3.5.1 Utilization of Cricket in Animals Feeding
5.3.6 Grasshopper and Its Protein
5.3.6.1 Utilization of Grasshopper in Animals Feeding
5.3.7 Locust and Its Protein
5.3.7.1 Utilization of Locust in Animals Feeding
5.4 Processing Proteins from Insects and Their Potential Applications
5.5 Utilization of the Whole Insect as a Protein Source in Processed Foods
5.6 Production of Insect Protein Extracts and Their Techno-functional Properties
5.7 Application of Insect Protein Hydrolysates in the Production of Food Product
5.8 Biological Activities of Insect Protein Hydrolysates and Peptides
5.9 Insect Proteins as a Potential Source of Antimicrobial Peptides
5.10 The Importance of Insects' Utilization in Human Food
5.11 Safety Issues with Insects as Source of Protein
5.12 Challenges Associated with the Consumption of Insects as Human Food
References
6. Snails
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Marine Snails
6.1.1.1 Turbinidae Family
6.1.2 Terrestrial Snails
6.2 Nutritional Aspects of Snail Meat
6.2.1 Proximate Composition
6.2.1.1 Land Snails
6.2.1.1.1 Marine Snails
6.2.1.2 Comparison with Commercial Meats
6.2.2 Amino Acid Composition
6.2.3 Fatty Acid Composition
6.2.4 Other Nutritionally Important Components
6.2.4.1 Cholesterol
6.2.4.2 Vitamin E
6.3 Minerals and Potential Toxic Compounds in Snail
6.3.1 Minerals
6.3.2 Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
6.4 Health Risks
6.5 Health Aspects
6.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
7. Keratin as an Alternative Protein in Food and Nutrition
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Structure and Chemical Composition of Keratins
7.3 Keratin Amino Acid Composition
7.4 Methods for Keratin Extraction and Degradation
7.4.1 Alkaline Hydrolysis Methods
7.4.2 Oxidation Methods
7.4.3 Reduction Methods
7.4.4 Sulphitolysis Methods
7.4.5 Ionic Liquid Dissolution Methods
7.4.6 Steam Flash Explosion Methods
7.4.7 Microwave-Assisted Methods
7.5 Microbial and Enzymatic Methods for the Degradation and Hydrolysis of Keratins
7.5.1 Keratinolytic Microorganisms
7.5.1.1 Keratinolytic Fungi
7.5.1.2 Keratinolytic Bacteria
7.5.1.3 Keratinolytic Actinomycetes
7.5.2 Keratinases
7.5.2.1 Catalytic Mechanisms of Keratinases
7.5.3 Production of Keratinases by Keratinolytic Microorganisms
7.5.4 Applications of Keratinases
7.6 Applications of Use of Extracted Keratins and Keratin Hydrolysates in Food and Nutrition
7.7 Keratin Hydrolysates in Food and Nutrition
7.7.1 Keratin-Derived Bioactive Peptides
7.7.1.1 Antioxidant Peptides
7.7.1.2 Antihypertension or Angiotensin I-Converting Enzyme (ACE) Inhibitory Peptides
7.7.1.3 Antidiabetic or Dipeptidyl Peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) Inhibitory Peptides
7.7.2 Keratins in Food Packaging
7.7.2.1 Use of Keratin in Microencapsulates and Edible Coatings
7.8 Safety Considerations
7.9 Consumer Issues
7.10 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
References
8. Non-Traditional Meat Sources, Production, Nutritional and Health Aspects, Consideration of Safety Aspects and Religious Views
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Production of Non-traditional Meats
8.3 Nutritional Composition of Non-traditional Meats
8.3.1 Camelids
8.4 Non-traditional Meat from Bison, Buffalo, Yak and Eland
8.4.1 Bison
8.4.2 Buffalo and Yak
8.4.3 Eland
8.5 Non-traditional Meat from Donkey, Horse and Mule
8.5.1 Donkey
8.5.2 Horse
8.6 Non-traditional Meat from Game Animals
8.6.1 Deer
8.7 Non-traditional Meat from Rodents
8.7.1 Cane Rat
8.7.2 Nutria
8.7.3 Guinea Pig
8.7.4 Chinchilla
8.7.5 Capybara
8.8 Non-traditional Meat from Reptiles
8.8.1 Crocodile
8.8.2 Caiman
8.9 Non-traditional Meat from Other Animals
8.9.1 Rabbit
8.10 Safety Issue Considerations of Non-conventional Meats
8.11 Religious Issues Associated with Meat Obtained from Non-traditional Sources
8.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgement
References
9. Cultured Meat: Challenges in the Path of Production and 3D Food Printing as an Option to Develop Cultured Meat-Based Products
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Possibilities for Production
9.3 3D-Printing of Muscle Products
9.3.1 3D-Printed Beef Products
9.3.2 3D-Printed Poultry Products
9.3.3 3D-Printed Fish/Seafood Products
9.3.4 3D-Printing Using Transglutaminase
9.3.5 3D-Printed Meat Products for Special Needs
9.3.6 3D-Printed Meat Products Using Cultured Meat
9.4 Challenges in the Path of Cultured Meat
9.4.1 Production Challenges
9.4.2 Resemblance to Meat in Structure, Sensory Attributes and Nutrition
9.4.3 Acceptance Issues
9.4.4 Ethical Aspects
9.4.5 Sensory Aspects
9.4.6 Environmental Considerations
9.4.7 Religious Aspects
9.4.8 Cost and Affordability
9.4.9 Safety Assurance
9.4.10 Sustainability Issues
9.4.11 Funding and Research
9.4.12 Other Risks
9.5 Conclusion
References
10. Bioconversion of Marine By-Products into Edible Protein
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Marine By-Products: Potential Sources and Volumes
10.3 Handling, Industrial Processing, and Impact of Processing Conditions
10.3.1 Production of Protein Isolate
10.3.2 Production of Protein Hydrolysates and Peptides
10.3.2.1 Chemical Methods
10.3.2.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
10.3.2.3 Fermentation
10.3.3 Extraction Other Protein-Based Products (e.g., Collagen, Enzymes)
10.4 Analytical Methods Used to Monitor Processing of Marine By-Products
10.4.1 Emerging Technologies for Extraction and Separation
10.4.2 Emerging Technologies for Analysis
10.5 Composition, Nutritional Value and Potential Health Benefits
10.6 Utilization of Marine Proteins and Protein-Derived Products
10.6.1 Use of Marine By-Products for Producing Feeds and Fertilizers
10.6.2 Food Applications
10.6.3 Medical, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries
10.7 Consumer Acceptance and Religious Aspects
10.8 Challenges and Future Trends
References
11. Meat Co-products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Global Co-product Market
11.3 Co-products as Part of the Solution for Global Malnutrition
11.4 Co-products for Treatment of Iron Deficiency "Anaemia"
11.5 Other Minerals in Co-products
11.6 Health Effect of Protein Bio-active Protein
11.6 Co-product Processing
11.6.1 Extrusion Cooking
11.6.2 Drying of Co-products
11.6.3 Co-product Hydrolysates
11.7 Cooking Effect on Co-products
11.8 Consumer Aspects of Co-product Utilisation
11.9 Conclusions
References
12. Food Safety Risks Associated with Novel Proteins
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Food Safety Hazards and Assessment of Novel Protein Source
12.3 Food Safety Risks of Specific Emergent Protein Sources
12.3.1 Insects
12.3.2 Seaweed (Macroalgae)
12.3.3 Duckweed
12.3.4 Rapeseed
12.3.5 Single Cell Protein
12.3.6 Microalgae
12.3.7 Cultured Meats
12.4 Control of Food Safety Hazards
12.4.1 Risk Assessments
12.4.2 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs)
12.4.3 Food Safety Plans
12.5 Conclusion and Key Food Safety Concerns
Acknowledgement and declaration
References
13. Allergenicity Risks Associated with Novel Proteins and Rapid Methods of Detection
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Main Protein Alternatives and Novel Sources and Their Risk Factors
13.2.1 Plant-Based Novel Protein Sources and Their Risks
13.2.2 Microalgae Proteins
13.2.3 Insects as Novel Protein Sources
13.2.4 Fungal Mycoprotein
13.3 Risks Associated with Phytotoxins in the Novel Protein Sources
13.3.1 Risks Associated with Lectins
13.3.2 Risks Associated with Aflatoxins
13.3.3 Risks Associated with Alkaloids
13.3.4 Risks Associated with Cyanogenic Glycosides
13.4 Risks Associated with the Mineral Bioavailability of Novel Proteins
13.5 Methods for the Identification of Novel Protein Risk Assessment
13.5.1 Mass Spectrometry Method
13.5.2 Chromatographic Approach for Novel Protein Risk Assessment
13.5.3 Gel-Based Proteomics Approach for Novel Protein Risk Assessment
13.5.4 Spectroscopic Methods for Novel Protein Secondary Structure
13.5.4.1 Fourier Transform IR Spectroscopy (FTIR) in the Structural Characterization of Proteins
13.5.4.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Technique
13.5.4.3 X-Ray and NMR
13.6 Bottom-Up Protein Risk and Allergen Assessments
13.6.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent (ELISA) and the Proximity Ligation Assay (PLA)
13.6.2 Polymerase Chain Reactions and Risk Assessment of Novel Proteins
13.7 Allergenicity Prediction Methods of Novel Food Proteins
13.7.1 Immune-Mediated Adverse Reactions for Novel Proteins Method
13.7.2 Steps for Novel Protein Risk Assessment by IgE-Mediated Methods
13.8 Conclusion and Future Prospective
Acknowledgements
References
14. Novel Protein Sources: An Overview of Food Regulations
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Regulatory Framework
14.2.1 Novel Food Regulation
14.2.2 Food Safety Regulation
14.2.3 Other Regulations
14.3 Regulatory Examples of Specific Novel Protein Sources
14.3.1 Insects
14.3.2 Microalgae
14.3.3 Seaweed
14.3.4 Duckweed
14.3.5 Rapeseed
14.3.6 Single Cell Protein
14.3.7 Cultured Meats
14.4 Need for Harmonized Global Regulations of Novel Protein Sources
14.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement and Declaration
References
Index