Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance: Towards Zero Carbon Transportation

Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
About the authors
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy
1 Introduction*
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Technology roadmaps to deliver low carbon targets
1.3 Vehicle technology contributions to low carbon targets
1.4 Powertrain technology contributions to low-carbon targets
1.5 Regulatory requirements and consumer trends
1.6 Traffic management factors
1.7 Global manufacturing and consumer trends
1.8 Commercial vehicles and buses
1.9 Electrification of transport technology
1.10 Current and future trends
1.11 Affordability and consumer appeal
1.12 Long-term vision: solar energy/hydrogen economy
1.13 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Further reading
2 The role of alternative and renewable liquid fuels in environmentally sustainable transport*
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Competing fuels and energy carriers
2.1.2 Onboard energy density
2.1.3 Vehicle cost
2.1.4 Environmental benefits
2.2 Market penetration of biodiesel
2.3 Market penetration of alcohol fuels
2.3.1 Brazil
2.3.2 United States
2.3.3 European union
2.3.4 China
2.4 Future provision of alternative liquid fuels: the biomass limit
2.5 Beyond the biomass limit: sustainable organic fuels for transport
2.5.1 Recycling CO2
2.5.2 Fuel synthesis
2.6 Renewable fuels within an integrated renewable energy system
2.7 Conclusions
2.8 Update for 2021
Acknowledgments
References
3 Using alternative and renewable liquid fuels to improve the environmental performance of internal combustion engines: key...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The use of biodiesel in internal combustion engines: fatty acid methyl esters and hydrogenated vegetable oil
3.3 Alcohol fuels: physicochemical properties
3.3.1 Volumetric energy density and stoichiometry
3.3.2 Vapour pressure
3.3.3 Octane numbers
3.4 Alcohol fuels for spark-ignition engines: effects on performance and efficiency
3.4.1 Performance
3.4.2 Efficiency
3.4.3 The efficiency of dedicated alcohol engines
3.5 Alcohol fuels for spark-ignition engines: pollutant emissions, deposits and lubricant dilution
3.6 Alcohol fuels for compression-ignition engines
3.7 Vehicle and blending technologies for alternative liquid fuels: flexible-fuel vehicles
3.8 Vehicle and blending technologies for alternative liquid fuels: ethanol–gasoline and methanol–gasoline bi-fuel vehicles
3.9 Vehicle and blending technologies for alternative liquid fuels: tri-flex-fuel vehicles and isostoichiometric ternary blends
3.9.1 Isostoichiometric ternary blends
3.10 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Further reading
4 Alternative and renewable gaseous fuels to improve vehicle environmental performance*
4.1 Update to the 2021 edition
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Fossil natural gas
4.4 Fossil natural gas production, transmission and distribution
4.4.1 Distribution of compressed natural gas
4.4.2 Distribution of liquefied natural gas
4.5 Natural gas engines and vehicles
4.5.1 Spark-ignition lean burn engines
4.5.2 Spark-ignition stoichiometric engines
4.5.3 Compression-ignition dual-fuel engines
4.5.4 Off-road vehicles
4.5.5 Onboard fuel storage
4.6 Biomethane/biogas
4.7 Biogas production, distribution and storage
4.7.1 Purification to biomethane
4.7.1.1 Absorption
4.7.1.2 Adsorption
4.7.1.3 Membrane separation
4.7.1.4 Cryogenic distillation
4.7.2 Distribution of gaseous biomethane
4.7.3 Distribution of liquid biomethane
4.7.4 Bulk storage
4.8 Liquefied petroleum gas
4.9 LPG production, distribution, storage and use in vehicles
4.9.1 LPG vehicles and fuel delivery systems
4.9.2 Vapour pressure systems
4.9.3 Liquid injection systems
4.10 Hydrogen
4.11 Hydrogen production, distribution, storage and use in vehicles
4.12 Ammonia
4.13 Lifecycle analysis of alternative gaseous fuels
4.14 Future trends
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
5 Electricity as an energy vector for transportation vehicles*
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Generation
5.2.1 Type 1: mechanical to electrical energy conversion
5.2.2 Type 2: photovoltaic
5.3 Transmission and distribution
5.3.1 Transmission
5.3.2 Distribution
5.3.3 Access to charging points
5.4 Storage
5.5 The nature of electrical energy
5.5.1 Storing electricity
5.5.1.1 Electricity can be stored as itself: electrostatics in capacitors
5.5.1.2 Using an artifact of current flow: inductance
5.5.2 Converting into other forms of energy for storage
5.5.2.1 Mechanical
5.5.2.2 Chemical
5.5.2.3 Lithium-ion battery storage
5.6 Onboard energy storage (battery)
5.6.1 Safety
5.6.2 Supply chain and cost
5.7 Onboard energy storage (hydrogen)
5.7.1 Fuel cells
5.7.2 H2 ICE
5.7.2.1 Hydrogen with a diesel pilot
5.7.2.2 Hydrogen with a spark
5.7.2.3 Hydrogen with a glow plug
5.8 Concluding remarks
Further reading
6 Hydrogen as an energy vector for transportation vehicles*
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview of hydrogen production
6.2.1 Steam methane reformation
6.2.2 Coal gasification
6.2.3 Electrolysis
6.2.4 High-temperature conversion from nuclear energy
6.2.5 By-product and industrial hydrogen
6.2.6 Green versus blue versus brown hydrogen production
6.3 Overview of electricity production
6.4 Hydrogen storage and transportation
6.4.1 Large-scale storage
6.4.1.1 Cryogenic
6.4.1.2 Underground
6.4.2 Small-scale storage
6.4.2.1 Compressed
6.4.2.2 Cryogenic and cryocompressed hydrogen
6.4.2.3 Metal hydride
6.4.2.4 Surface adsorption
6.4.3 Transportation
6.5 Conclusions
References
7 Advanced engine oils*
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The role of the lubricant in a modern internal combustion engine
7.2.1 Safeguarding engine durability
7.2.2 Contributing to the fuel economy of the engine
7.2.3 Helping to maintain a low level of emissions
7.3 The composition of a typical modern engine lubricant
7.4 Diesel engine lubrication challenges
7.5 Gasoline engine lubrication challenges
7.6 Industry and original equipment manufacturer specifications for engine oils
7.7 Lubricating modern engines in developing markets
7.8 Future engine oil evolution
7.8.1 Future fuel economy challenges
7.8.2 Future emissions challenges
7.8.3 Future fuel challenges
7.8.4 New materials
7.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
8 Advanced fuel additives for modern internal combustion engines*
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Additive types and their impact on conventional and advanced fuels
8.2.1 Antioxidants and stabilizers
8.2.2 Cold flow improvers
8.2.3 Filter blocking tendency
8.2.4 Lubricity improvers and friction modifiers
8.2.5 Ferrous corrosion inhibitors
8.2.6 Other corrosion inhibitors
8.2.7 Conductivity improvers
8.3 Impacts of additives on combustion characteristics
8.3.1 Diesel ignition improving additives
8.3.2 Octane-improving additives
8.4 Diesel performance and deposit control additives
8.4.1 Injector nozzle coking
8.4.2 Diesel injector internal deposits
8.4.3 Diesel performance additive packages
8.5 Gasoline performance and deposit control additives
8.5.1 Gasoline engine deposits
8.5.2 Gasoline performance additive packages
8.5.3 Cleanliness and performance of port fuel–injected gasoline engines
8.5.4 Gasoline direct injection engines and injector plugging
8.5.5 Effects of ethanol on deposit formation
8.6 Conclusions and future trends
Acknowledgments
References
9 Internal combustion engine cycles and concepts*
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Ideal engine operation cycles
9.2.1 Two-stroke cycle
9.2.2 Four-stroke cycle
9.2.3 Ideal cycle analysis and theoretical efficiency limits
9.2.3.1 Constant volume ideal heat addition
9.2.3.2 Constant pressure ideal heat addition
9.2.3.3 Limited pressure ideal heat addition
9.2.3.4 Ideal heat addition method comparison
9.3 Alternative engine operating cycles
9.3.1 Overexpanded cycle
9.3.1.1 Atkinson cycle
9.3.1.2 Miller cycle
9.3.1.3 Implementation of overexpanded cycles
9.3.2 Split cycle engines
9.3.2.1 Scuderi split cycle
9.3.2.2 Stirling split cycle
9.3.3 Rotary engine
9.3.4 Free-piston engine
9.3.5 Dual-fuel engines
9.3.6 Opposed-piston engines
9.4 Comparison of engine cycle performance
9.4.1 Actual engine cycles
9.4.1.1 Spark ignition engines
9.4.1.2 Compression ignition engines
9.4.2 Limitations
9.4.2.1 Friction
9.4.2.2 Heat transfer
9.4.2.3 Throttling
9.4.2.4 Boosting
9.4.3 Impact of fuel type
9.4.4 Convergence of spark ignition and compression ignition engines
9.5 Advantages and limitations of internal combustion engines
9.6 Conclusion and future trends
9.7 Sources of further information and advice
References
10 Heavy-duty vehicles and powertrains: technologies and systems that enable ‘zero’ air quality and greenhouse gas emission...
10.1 The heavy-duty sector: definitions and characteristics
10.2 The environmental challenges: air quality, greenhouse gases and energy efficiency
10.2.1 Air quality emissions
10.2.2 Greenhouse gas emissions
10.2.3 Energy efficiency
10.2.4 A holistic approach to assessing emissions performance of a vehicle or mobile machine
10.3 Fuels and energy carriers
10.3.1 Mineral or fossil hydrocarbon fuels
10.3.2 Biohydrocarbon fuels
10.3.3 Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels
10.3.4 Hydrogen
10.3.5 Electricity and batteries
10.4 Energy converters
10.4.1 Engines
10.4.2 Motors
10.4.3 Fuel cells
10.5 Net-zero emission–capable systems
10.6 Internal combustion engines
10.6.1 Basic thermodynamics of a heat engine
10.6.2 Engine system technologies critical for delivering ‘zero’ emissions and high efficiency
10.6.2.1 Fuel injection
10.6.2.2 Air system: turbocharging and supercharging
10.6.2.3 Exhaust gas recirculation
10.6.2.4 Breathing: valve timing and control
10.6.2.5 Aftertreatment: high-efficiency removal of regulated pollutants from the exhaust gas
10.6.2.6 Control and management system
10.6.3 Engine design and development methodologies
10.6.4 Future technologies
10.7 Summary
References
11 Heavy-duty vehicles and powertrains: future internal combustion engine systems and technologies*
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Configurations, thermodynamics and combustion
11.1.1.1 Configurations
11.1.1.2 Thermodynamics
11.1.1.3 Combustion
Combustion system development: Geometry and trade-offs
11.1.2 Fuel systems
11.1.2.1 Common rail injector
11.1.2.2 Electronic unit injectors
11.1.2.3 Important injection characteristics
11.1.3 Air systems
11.1.3.1 Turbochargers
11.1.3.2 Two-stage turbocharging
11.1.3.3 E-turbochargers
11.1.3.4 Charge cooling
11.1.3.5 Turbocharger design and materials
11.1.4 Exhaust gas recirculation
11.1.4.1 Internal exhaust gas recirculation
11.1.4.2 External exhaust gas recirculation: high pressure or short loop
11.1.4.3 External exhaust gas recirculation – low pressure or long loop
11.1.4.4 Exhaust gas recirculation effect on engine emissions
11.1.4.5 Exhaust gas recirculation system reliability
11.1.5 Engine breathing
11.1.6 Friction and losses
11.1.6.1 Frictional losses
11.1.6.2 Pumping losses
11.1.6.3 Essential ancillaries
11.1.6.4 Other ancillaries
11.1.7 Waste heat recovery systems
11.1.7.1 Exhaust gas turbine system
11.1.7.2 Thermodynamic cycle heat recovery – organic rankine cycle
11.1.7.3 Thermoelectric generation systems
11.1.7.4 Other waste heat recovery technologies
11.1.7.5 Potential system efficiencies and contribution to overall engine efficiency
11.1.8 Aftertreatment systems
11.1.8.1 Catalysts
11.1.8.2 Catalyst wash coat and carriers
11.1.8.3 Diesel oxidation catalyst
11.1.8.4 Diesel particulate filter
11.1.8.5 Selective catalytic reduction
Urea dosing and mixing
Ammonia slip catalyst
11.1.8.6 NOx traps and adsorbers
Lean NOx traps
Passive NOx adsorbers
11.1.8.7 Thermal management
11.1.8.8 The road to zero air quality emissions
11.1.9 Control systems, onboard diagnostics and telematics
11.1.9.1 Control systems
11.1.9.2 On board diagnostics
11.1.9.3 Telematics
11.1.9.4 In service emissions compliance
11.1.10 Gaseous fuels and spark ignition
11.1.10.1 Natural gas
11.1.10.2 Hydrogen
11.1.10.3 Other gaseous fuels
11.1.11 Summary and trends in deployment
11.1.11.1 2025 Heavy-duty engine configuration example
11.1.11.2 2030 Heavy-duty engine configuration example
Acknowledgements
References
12 Conventional and advanced internal combustion engine materials*
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Conventional IC engine materials
12.2.1 Crankshafts
12.2.2 Connecting rods
12.2.3 Pistons and their components
12.2.3.1 Pistons
12.2.3.2 Piston pins
12.2.3.3 Piston rings
12.2.4 Engine valve train
12.2.4.1 Valves
12.2.4.2 Tappets and pushrods
12.2.4.3 Valve springs
12.2.4.4 Camshafts and cams
12.2.5 Cylinder blocks
12.2.6 Head bolts and head studs
12.2.7 Cylinder head gaskets
12.3 Advanced IC engine materials
12.3.1 Compact graphite iron
12.3.2 Carbon fibre-reinforced polymers
12.3.3 Graphite/carbon fibre- or carbon/carbon fibre-type composite materials
12.3.4 A polyamide for manufacturing intake manifolds
12.3.5 Advanced materials for manufacturing valves
12.3.6 Ceramic materials for IC engines
12.3.7 Composite head gaskets of IC engines
12.4 Additive manufacturing technology for production of IC engine parts
12.4.1 Laser-based AM
12.4.2 Electron beam melting (EBM)-based AM
12.4.3 Ionized plasma melting-based AM
12.4.4 Ultrasonic additive manufacturing
References
13 Advanced transmission systems for new propulsion technologies*
13.1 Historical review of transmissions
13.1.1 Manual transmissions
13.1.2 Automatic or automated transmissions
13.1.2.1 Automated manual transmissions
13.1.2.2 Dual-clutch transmissions
13.1.2.3 Planetary automatics
13.1.2.4 Continuously variable transmissions
13.2 Partial electrification, hybrids and dedicated hybrid transmissions
13.2.1 Plug-in and self-charging hybrids
13.3 Why the future of conventional transmissions is now time limited for new vehicle products
13.3.1 The battery electric vehicle and its electrical drive unit
13.3.2 Single-speed electrical drive units
13.3.3 Park lock, yes or no?
13.3.4 Multispeed and multi motor electrical drive units
13.3.5 Dual-motor axles and torque vectoring
13.3.6 Dual-motor split power electric drives
13.4 Future market segmentation and appropriate solutions
13.5 Conclusions
References
14 Sustainable design and manufacture of lightweight vehicle structures*
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The value of mass reduction
14.3 General challenges and opportunities
14.3.1 Stiffness
14.3.2 Strength
14.3.3 Crashworthiness
14.3.4 Environmental resistance
14.3.5 Affordability and manufacturability
14.4 Possible architectures of the next-generation vehicle
14.4.1 Unibody construction
14.4.2 Ladder frame
14.4.3 Space frame and truss frame
14.4.4 Backbone chassis
14.4.5 Monocoque
14.4.6 Multimaterial construction
14.5 Specific lightweighting technologies
14.5.1 Shaping/fabricating technologies
14.5.1.1 Warm forming
14.5.1.2 Hot stamping
14.5.1.3 Impulse forming
14.5.1.4 High-integrity casting of light alloys
14.5.1.5 Additive manufacture
14.5.1.6 Beam structures
14.5.2 Joining technologies
14.5.2.1 Friction stir welding
14.5.2.2 Impact welding
14.5.2.3 Self-piercing rivets
14.5.2.4 Structural adhesives
14.5.2.5 Conformal joining
14.6 Future trends
14.6.1 Customer appeal and affordability
14.6.2 Thought leadership
14.6.3 Conceptual and detailed design
14.6.4 Materials and process maturation
Acknowledgements
References
15 Improving vehicle rolling resistance and aerodynamics*
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Overview of vehicle aerodynamics
15.3 Rolling resistance in vehicles
15.4 Advanced vehicle design for drag reduction
15.4.1 Passenger cars
15.4.2 Heavy vehicles
15.5 Advanced tyre design and materials
15.5.1 Tyre structure
15.5.2 Contact area
15.5.3 Materials
15.5.4 Pressure control
15.6 Conclusions and future trends
References
16 New and emerging applications for flywheel energy storage in transport*
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Flywheel energy storage in the context of electrification of vehicle transport
16.1.2 Flywheel applications within electrified transport
16.2 Flywheels with electrical transmission
16.2.1 Overview
16.2.2 Rotor design and materials for a maximum ratio of stored energy to weight
16.2.3 Aerodynamic loss and vacuum system
16.2.4 Low-loss bearings
16.2.5 Safety in the event of rotor failure
16.3 Flywheels for ultracharging of battery electric vehicles
16.3.1 Barriers to BEVs – real and nonissues
16.3.2 Charging patterns for BEVs
16.3.2.1 Long journey charging
16.3.2.2 Park up, urban or mall charging
16.3.2.3 Long duration, slow charging
16.3.2.4 Dispersed top-up charging
16.3.3 Provision of top-up ultrafast chargers in terms of challenges and numbers
16.3.4 The top-up ultrafast charger duty cycle
16.3.5 Flywheel energy storage for top-up ultrafast chargers and comparison with alternatives
16.4 Flywheels for fuel cell electric vehicles
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid powertrains for improved fuel economy in vehicles*
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Hydraulic hybrid principle of operation and system architectures
17.3 Hydraulic component design and modelling
17.3.1 Hydraulic pump/motors
17.3.1.1 Mathematical model of the hydraulic pump/motor
17.3.2 Hydraulic-pneumatic accumulator
17.3.2.1 Thermodynamic model of the hydraulic-pneumatic accumulator
17.4 Integrated hydraulic hybrid vehicle simulation
17.5 Design and control of hydraulic hybrid powertrains
17.5.1 Design and control of a parallel hydraulic hybrid
17.5.1.1 Supervisory control methods and application to a P-HHV
17.5.2 Design and control of a series hydraulic hybrid
17.5.2.1 Rule-based control of a series hydraulic hybrid
17.5.2.2 Advanced algorithms for control of the series hydraulic hybrid
17.6 Examples of practical applications
17.7 Pneumatic hybrids
17.7.1 Principle of pneumatic hybrid operation
17.7.2 Pneumatic hybrid system examples and key findings
References
18 Integration and performance of regenerative braking and energy recovery technologies in vehicles*
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Types and properties of regenerative braking and energy recovery
18.2.1 Electrical regeneration properties
18.2.2 Mechanical regeneration properties
18.2.2.1 Kinetic energy storage
18.2.3 Fluid-based regeneration properties
18.2.4 Governance and regulation
18.3 Hybrid and electric vehicles with energy recovery: design and performance issues
18.3.1 Powertrain design
18.3.2 Braking control
18.4 Design integration and operational optimisation
18.4.1 Braking fundamentals
18.4.1.1 Regenerative braking
18.4.1.2 Braking stability
18.4.1.3 Regenerative systems
18.4.1.4 Stability and skid control
18.4.1.5 Response to driver input
18.4.2 Case study
18.5 Advantages and limitations of regenerative braking
18.6 Conclusions and future trends
References
19 Battery technology requirements for CO2 reduction*
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Electrification benefits beyond CO2 reduction
19.1.2 Definitions
19.2 Vehicle drive cycles and CO2 reduction opportunities
19.2.1 Introduction
19.2.2 Review of passenger car driving cycles
19.2.3 Idle reduction
19.2.4 Separation of engine response from driver demand
19.2.5 Fuel displacement by ‘plugging in’
19.2.6 Summary
19.3 Battery functionality and chemistries for vehicle applications
19.3.1 Introduction
19.3.2 Cell functionality
19.3.3 Performance metrics
19.3.4 Chemistries
19.3.4.1 Lead–acid (PbA)
19.3.4.2 Nickel–metal hydride (NiMH)
19.3.4.3 Lithium-ion cell chemistries
19.3.5 Cost
19.3.6 Summary
References
20 Lithium-ion cells, batteries, and other emerging storage technologies
20.1 Lithium-ion cells
20.1.1 Introduction
20.1.2 Lithium-ion cell construction
20.1.3 Active materials
20.1.4 Separator and electrolyte
20.1.5 Lithium-ion cell safety
20.1.6 Lithium-ion cell life
20.1.7 Summary
20.2 High-voltage battery pack design
20.2.1 Introduction
20.2.2 High-voltage system
20.2.2.1 Contactors
20.2.2.2 Precharge circuit
20.2.2.3 Fuse
20.2.2.4 Manual service disconnect
20.2.2.5 High-voltage interlock or integrity loop
20.2.3 Thermal management system
20.2.4 Environmental enclosure
20.2.5 Summary
20.3 Battery management systems
20.3.1 Introduction
20.3.2 Cell voltage measurement and control
20.3.3 Current measurement
20.3.4 Contactor control
20.3.5 Isolation monitoring
20.3.6 Temperature control
20.3.7 State of charge (SOC) state of health (SOH) calculations
20.3.8 Cell balancing
20.3.9 Communication
20.3.10 Historical data collection
20.3.11 Summary
20.4 Future trends
20.4.1 Anode improvements
20.4.2 Cathode improvements
20.4.3 Electrolyte improvements
20.4.4 Beyond lithium-ion
20.4.5 Non-cell research areas
20.5 Conclusions
20.6 Sources of further information and advice
References
21 Conventional fuel/hybrid electric vehicles*
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Basic components of a hybrid electric vehicle system
21.3 Architectures of hybrid electric drivetrains
21.3.1 Use of gasoline or diesel engines
21.4 Series hybrid electric drivetrains (electrical coupling)
21.4.1 Design principles
21.5 Parallel hybrid electric drivetrains (mechanical coupling)
21.5.1 Design principles
21.5.2 Engine power design
21.5.3 Transmission design
21.6 Series-parallel hybrid electric drivetrains (electric and mechanical coupling) and plug-in hybrids
21.6.1 Plug-in hybrids
21.7 Control and performance
21.7.1 Control
21.7.2 Performance
21.7.3 Emission reduction
21.7.4 Auxiliary load
21.8 Future trends
References
22 Full electric vehicles*
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Electric vehicle drivetrain layouts
22.3 Modern traction motors
22.4 Modern inverters
22.5 Battery pack technology trends
22.6 EV manufacturing and embedded carbon
22.7 Summary
References
23 Fuel-cell (hydrogen) electric hybrid vehicles*
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Energy devices for the transport sector
23.2.1 Batteries
23.2.1.1 Nickel metal hydride batteries
23.2.1.2 Lithium-ion batteries
23.2.1.3 Current issues
23.2.2 Hydrogen and fuel cells
23.2.2.1 Hydrogen
Hydrogen facts, production, storage, and usage
23.2.2.2 Fuel cells
23.2.3 Electrochemical capacitors
23.3 Fuel cell electric vehicles
23.3.1 Introduction
23.3.2 Examples of fuel cell electric vehicle developments
23.3.2.1 Passenger vehicles
23.3.2.2 Heavy-duty vehicles
23.3.2.3 Rail, water, and air transport
23.4 Technical barriers and future development
23.5 Conclusions
References
24 How autonomous vehicles can contribute to emission reductions, fuel economy improvements and safety?
24.1 Overview of CAV, CAM and MaaS
24.1.1 Automation versus autonomy
24.1.2 Near-, mid- and far-term prognosis
24.1.3 The need for CAV/CAM to contribute to net zero
24.1.4 Where and how CAV/CAM can contribute
24.1.4.1 Types of emissions (tailpipe, particulate, source, product manufacturing, shipping)
24.1.4.2 Efficient systems
24.1.4.3 Efficient communication
24.1.4.4 Converting knowledge to efficiency savings
24.1.4.5 Efficient vehicles
24.1.4.6 Safer vehicles
24.1.4.7 Cleaner vehicles
24.1.4.8 Safer systems
24.1.4.9 Customer acceptance, trust and perception
24.1.5 Automated Vehicles are much harder to accomplish than initially thought
24.2 A system of systems approach
24.2.1 V2X considerations
24.2.1.1 Safety improvements
24.2.1.2 Emissions reductions and fuel economy improvements
24.2.2 Opportunities in increased efficiencies to reduce emissions and increase safety
24.2.3 Path planning and optimization
24.2.4 Considerations for vehicle architecture and interaction with the environment
24.2.5 Architecture changes with autonomous electric vehicles
24.2.6 Mixed fleet crash compatibility
24.2.7 Occupant safety and comfort
24.3 The need for digital verification and validation
24.3.1 What is a digital framework?
24.3.2 Why is there a need for a digital framework methodology?
24.3.3 What value does a digital framework bring?
24.3.4 What is required to develop the framework?
24.4 Considerations for optimum implementation of regulations
24.5 The needs of the user
24.6 Conclusion
References
Index