Alternative Fuels

Cover
Half Title
Series
Title
Copyright
CONTENTS
Preface
1 GLOBAL ENERGY OVERVIEW
1.1 U.S. Energy Supplies
1.2 World Primary Energy Production
1.3 Crude Oil Reserves
1.4 Supplies of Natural Gas in the United States
1.5 Coal Overview
1.6 Nuclear Energy
1.7 Electric Power Generation from Renewable Energy Sources
1.8 Energy, Environment, and Economy
1.8.1 Energy Appetite
1.8.2 Environmental Issues
1.8.3 Development of Alternative Fuels
References
Problems
2 COAL, COAL DERIVATIVES, AND COAL PRODUCTS
2.1 Coal as a Source of Conventional Fuel
2.1.1 Coal Petrography
2.1.2 Structure and Chemistry of Coal
2.1.3 Characterization of Coal
2.1.4 Power Generation by Coal Combustion
2.1.5 Environmental Regulations
2.1.6 SOx/NOx Problem
2.1.7 Ash Disposal Problem
2.1.8 Particulate Emission Control
2.1.9 Acid Rain
2.1.10 Greenhouse Effect
2.1.11 Safety Issues in Coal Mining
2.1.12 Safety and Economic Issues in Coal Transportation
2.1.13 Future and Trend Analysis
2.2 Coal as a Source of Clean Fuel
2.2.1 Environmental Acceptability
2.2.2 International Programs
2.3 Environmental Issues of Coal Mining
2.3.1 Abandoned Mining Sites
2.3.2 Spoil Piles or Gob Piles
2.3.3 Dust
2.3.4 Water Runoff
2.3.5 Blasting
2.3.6 Noise
References
Problems
3 COAL GASIFICATION: SYNTHESIS OF SYNGAS, FUELS, AND PETROCHEMICALS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 High-, Medium-, and Low-Btu Gases
3.3 Various Syngas Generation Processes
3.3.1 Historical Background
3.3.2 General Aspects of Gasification
3.3.3 Classification
3.3.4 Gasification Processes
3.3.5 Modeling of Different Coal Gasifiers
3.4 Various Chemical Reactions in Gasification
3.4.1 Steam Gasification
3.4.2 Boudouard Reaction
3.4.3 Hydrogasification
3.4.4 Water Gas Shift Reaction
3.4.5 Partial Combustion
3.4.6 Kinetics of Gasification
3.4.7 Thermodynamics of Coal Gasification
3.4.8 Chemical Mechanisms
3.4.9 Design Criteria
References
Problems
4 COAL LIQUEFACTION FOR ALTERNATIVE LIQUID FUELS
4.1 Liquefaction of Coal: Background
4.2 Coal Pyrolysis for Liquid Fuel
4.2.1 COED Process
4.2.2 TOSCOAL Process
4.2.3 Lurgi-Ruhrgas Process
4.2.4 Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process
4.2.5 Clean Coke Process
4.2.6 Coalcon Process
4.3 Direct Liquefaction of Coal
4.3.1 Bergius-IG Hydroliquefaction Process
4.3.2 H-Coal Process
4.3.3 Solvent Refined Coal (SRC-I)
4.3.4 Exxon Donor Solvent (EDS) Process
4.3.5 SRC-II Process
4.3.6 Nonintegrated Two-Stage Liquefaction (NTSL)
4.3.7 Thermal Integrated Two-Stage Liquefaction (ITSL)
4.3.8 Catalytic Two-Stage Liquefaction (CTSL)
4.3.9 Evolution of Liquefaction Technology
4.4 Indirect Liquefaction of Coal
4.4.1 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis for Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels
4.4.2 Conversion of Syngas to Methanol
4.4.3 Conversion of Methanol to Gasoline
4.5 Coal-Oil Coprocessing
References
Problems
5 INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED CYCLE TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Alternative Clean Coal Technologies
5.2 IGCC Technology Overview
5.2.1 Cold Gas Cleanup
5.2.2 Hot Gas Cleanup
5.2.3 IGCC or MCFC
5.2.4 Advances in the IGCC Field
5.2.5 Introduction of a Fuel Cell into a Combined Cycle
5.2.6 Parallel Compound Dual-Fluid Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant
5.2.7 CO2 Capture in CC and IGCC Power Plants Using a CO2 Gas Turbine
5.2.8 Development of Advanced Gas Turbine Systems
5.3 Clean Coal Technology (CCT) Program
5.3.1 IGCC for Acid Rain Control
5.3.2 Cool Water IGCC Plant
5.3.3 Economics of IGCC
5.3.4 Repowering and Coprocessing
5.3.5 Phased Construction
5.3.6 Integrating Thermal Energy Storage in Power Plants
5.3.7 Biomass Fueled Cogeneration
5.3.8 IGCC Coproducing Electricity and Fertilizer (1GCC/F)
References
Problems
6 COAL SLURRY FUEL
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Coal Slurry Characterization
6.2.1 Particle Size Distribution
6.2.2 Rheology
6.2.3 Stability
6.2.4 Suspension Types
6.2.5 Interparticle Interactions
6.3 Coal-Water Slurry
6.4 Coal-Oil Slurry
6.5 Advanced Transport
6.6 Combustion
6.7 Environmental Issues
6.8 Recent Advances and Future
References
Problems
7 OIL SHALE AND SHALE OIL
7.1 Properties of Oil Shale and Shale Oil
7.1.1 Physical and Transport Properties
7.1.2 Thermal Characteristics of Oil Shale Minerals
7.1.3 Electric Properties of Oil Shale
7.1.4 Molecular Consideration of Kerogen
7.1.5 Boiling Range Distributions of Various Shale Oils
7.2 Oil Shale as Synthetic Fuel Source
7.3 Constraints in Shale Oil Production
7.3.1 Technological Constraints
7.3.2 Economic and Financial Constraints
7.3.3 Environmental Constraints
7.4 Research Needs in Oil Shale
7.4.1 Chemical Characterization
7.4.2 Correlation of Physical Properties
7.4.3 Mechanisms of Retorting Reactions
7.4.4 Heat and Mass Transfer Problems
7.4.5 Upgrading Shale Oil Crudes
7.4.6 By-Product Minerals from U.S. Oil Shale
7.4.7 Characterization of Inorganic Matters in Oil Shale
7.5 Oil Shale Retorting and Extraction Processes
7.5.1 Ex Situ Retorting Processes
7.5.2 In Situ Retorting Processes
7.5.3 Shale Oil Refining and Upgrading
References
Problems
8 TAR SANDS
8.1 What Are Tar Sands?
8.1.1 Tar Sand Reserves
8.1.2 Definitions
8.1.3 Recoverability of Synthetic Crude
8.1.4 Major Tar Sand Deposits
8.2 Properties of Tar Sands
8.2.1 Elemental Properties
8.2.2 Properties of Tar Sand Bitumen
8.2.3 Geochemistry of Tar Sands
8.2.4 Classification of Bituminous Materials
8.3 Tar Sand Processes
8.3.1 In Situ Thermal Processing of Tar Sands
8.3.2 Ex Situ Thermal Processing of Tar Sands
8.3.3 Hot Water Separation
8.4 Outlook
References
Problems
9 UTILIZATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
9.1 Geothermal Energy
9.1.1 History of Geothermal Energy
9.1.2 What Is Geothermal Energy?
9.1.3 Need for Geothermal Energy
9.1.4 Occurrence of Geothermal Energy
9.1.5 Advantages of Geothermal Energy
9.2 Statistical Information on Geothermal Energy
9.2.1 Geothermal Energy (World)
9.2.2 U.S. Energy Sources
9.3 Scientific and Technology Updates
9.3.1 Scientific Updates
9.3.2 Technology Updates
9.4 Past, Current, and Future
9.4.1 Current
9.4.2 Future
9.5 Processes and Applications
9.5.1 Processes
9.5.2 Applications
References
Problems
10 BIOMASS CONVERSION
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Thermal Conversion
10.2.1 Direct Combustion
10.2.2 Gasification
10.2.3 Liquefaction
10.2.4 Pyrolysis
10.3 Biological Conversion: Anaerobic Digestion
10.4 Fuel Ethanol Fermentation
10.4.1 Introduction
10.4.2 Agricultural Lignocellulosic Feedstocks
10.4.3 Enzymatic Processes
10.4.4 Lignin Conversion
10.4.5 Energy Balance for Ethanol Production from Biomass
References
Problems
11 ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY FROM SOLID WASTES
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW)
11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Gasification
11.2.3 Digestion of MSW
11.2.4 Pyrolysis of MSW
11.3 Energy Generation from Polymeric Wastes
11.3.1 Introduction
11.3.2 Mechanical Recycling
11.3.3 Waste-to-Energy Processes
11.4 Fuel Production from Spent Tires
11.4.1 Introduction
11.4.2 Pyrolysis
11.4.3 Partial Oxidation via Supercritical Water Oxidation
11.4.4 Others
References
Problems
INDEX