Agricultural Waste: Environmental Impact, Useful Metabolites and Energy Production

Preface
Contents
Part I: Agricultural Waste: Environmental Sustainability
Chapter 1: Disposal of Agricultural Waste and Its Effects on the Environment, Production of Useful Metabolites and Energy: Pot...
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Population Growth and Demand for Food
1.1.2 Impact on Global Warming
1.1.3 Problems of Management of Residue
1.2 Agroindustrial and Food Waste and By-Products
1.3 Value-Added Products
1.4 Valorization of Agroindustrial Waste
1.4.1 Various Useful Primary Metabolites Obtained and Processes
1.4.2 Various Bioactive Secondary Metabolites Obtained
1.4.3 Composting of Agrifood Wastes
1.4.4 Renewable Energy Production
1.4.5 Nanotechnology: An Advance Tool
1.5 Conclusions, Prospects and Challenges
References
Chapter 2: Utilizing Agricultural Waste in Production of Biochar for Improving Soil Properties and Increasing Crop Yield Throu...
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biochar Production
2.2.1 BioCharan: An On-Site Method of Biochar Production
2.2.2 Soil Preparation and Experimental Setup
2.2.3 Biochar Characterization
2.2.3.1 Physicochemical Characteristics and Particle Size Distribution
2.2.3.2 Elemental Analysis
2.2.3.3 FTIR Spectroscopic and SEM Analysis
2.2.3.4 XRD Analysis
2.2.3.5 Physicochemical and Geotechnical Properties
2.3 Effect of Biochar on Soil Properties
2.4 Effect of Biochar on Crop Yield
2.5 Conclusions
References
Part II: Processes for Value Addition to Agricultural Waste
Chapter 3: Value-Added Products from Agricultural Wastes: Pectins from Cocoa Husk, Coffee Pulp, Soybean Hulls and Grape Pomace
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Plant Cell Wall
3.3 Pectin
3.4 Cocoa Pod Husk
3.4.1 Composition and Uses of Cacao Pod Husk
3.4.2 Potential of Cocoa Pod Husk as Source of Pectins
3.5 Coffee Pulp
3.5.1 Coffee Processing and Wastes
3.5.2 Composition and Uses of Coffee Pulp
3.5.3 Potential of Coffee Pulp as a Source of Pectins
3.6 Soybean Hull
3.6.1 Soybean Processing and By-Products
3.6.2 Composition and Uses of Soy Hull
3.6.3 Soy Hull as a Source of Pectin
3.7 Grape Pomace
3.7.1 Winemaking Process and Grape Pomace Waste
3.7.2 Composition and Uses of Grape Pomace
3.7.3 Dietary Fibres from Grape Pomace
3.7.4 The Potential of Grape Pomace as Source of Pectins
3.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Biomaterials Derived from Agricultural Waste: A Focus on Collagen
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Effect of Tannery Waste Materials on the Environment
4.2.1 The Use of Bovine and Cattle Hides for Collagen Extraction
4.3 Extraction Methodologies of Collagen from Agricultural Waste
4.3.1 Types of Collagen Found in the Mammalian Body
4.3.2 Collagen Extraction from Bovine Hides
4.3.3 Bovine Hide Properties
4.3.4 Monitoring of Temperature
4.3.5 Demineralisation and Defatting Steps
4.3.6 Elimination of Other Proteins: Non-collagenous Proteins
4.3.7 Salting-Out Extraction
4.3.8 Alkali-Treated Sample Methods
4.3.9 Alkali and Enzyme Method
4.3.10 Alkali-Acid Extraction
4.3.11 Acid Solubilisation of Collagen
4.3.12 The Enzyme Method
4.3.13 Acid-Enzyme Solubilisation
4.4 Biomaterials and Applications of Collagen Derived from Bovine Waste
4.4.1 Collagen-Derived Films
4.4.2 Collagen-Derived Sponges
4.4.3 Collagen-Derived Corneal Shields
4.4.4 Collagen for Skin Replacement and as Bone Substitutes
4.4.5 Collagen in 3D Printing Applications
4.4.6 Collagen in Cosmetics
4.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Valorization of Agricultural Lignocellulosic Plant Byproducts Following Biorefinery Approach Toward Circular Bioeco...
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Composition
5.2.1 Cellulose
5.2.1.1 Traditional Pretreatment Techniques
5.2.1.2 Novel/Emerging Pretreatment Techniques
5.2.2 Hemicellulose
5.2.2.1 Hemicellulose Extraction
5.2.2.2 Hemicellulose Application
5.2.3 Lignin
5.2.3.1 Lignin Extraction Methods
5.2.3.2 Lignin Applications
5.3 Future Perspectives
5.4 Conclusions and Final Remarks
References
Chapter 6: Bioactive Peptides from Protein-Rich Waste
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Waste Generation
6.2.1 Waste: Vegetal and Animal Origin
6.3 Protein and Peptide Production from Waste
6.3.1 Traditional Hydrolysis Process Applied to Obtain Bioactive Peptides
6.3.1.1 Chemical Hydrolysis
6.3.1.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
6.3.1.3 Microbial Hydrolysis
6.3.2 Refining Techniques Applied to Bioactive Peptides from Protein-Rich Wastes
6.4 Technological Properties of Peptides from Protein-Rich Waste
6.5 Biological Properties of Peptides from Protein-Rich Waste
6.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Biopolymers in Sugarcane Vinasse Treatment and Valorization
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ethanol Production
7.3 Sugarcane Vinasse
7.4 Physicochemical Characteristics of Sugarcane Vinasse
7.5 Use of Biopolymers in Sugarcane Vinasse Treatment and Valorization
7.5.1 Microalgae Immobilization in Biopolymeric Matrices for Vinasse Treatment and Biomass Accumulation
7.5.2 Slow-Release Biodegradable Fertilizers Based on Biopolymers and Vinasse
7.5.3 Biodegradable Mulching Films Enriched with Vinasse
7.6 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 8: Valorization of Guava Fruit By-Products
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Guava By-Products
8.3 Physicochemical Composition
8.4 Bioactive Compounds
8.4.1 Flavonoids
8.4.2 Condensed Tannins
8.5 Bioactive Compounds Identified in Guava By-Products
8.6 Utilization of Guava By-Products
8.6.1 Antioxidant Dietary Fiber
8.6.2 Beneficial Health Effects Related to the Consumption of Guava By-Products
8.6.3 Incorporation in Food
8.6.4 Obtaining Pectin
8.6.5 Energy Production
8.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Valorization of Coffee By-Products: An Overview
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Coffee Description
9.3 Coffee Botany
9.3.1 Coffea arabica
9.3.2 Coffea canephora
9.4 Coffee Production in the World
9.4.1 Coffee Market
9.5 Processing of Coffee Pulp
9.6 Bioactive Compounds
9.6.1 Polyphenols
9.6.2 Flavonoids
9.6.3 Tannins
9.6.4 Procyanidins
9.7 Use of Coffee Waste
9.8 Conclusions
9.9 Final Comments
References
Chapter 10: Valorization of Tomato Fruit Processing Residues
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Tomato Fruit
10.1.1.1 Generalities
10.1.1.2 Structure of the Fruit
10.1.1.3 General Composition
10.1.1.4 Composition of Ripe Fruit
10.1.1.5 Starch
10.1.1.6 Sugars
10.1.1.7 Organic Acids
10.1.1.8 Volatile Compounds
10.1.1.9 Pigments
10.1.1.10 Lipids
10.1.2 Worldwide Production of Tomato Fruit and By-Products
10.2 By-Products of Tomato Processing
10.2.1 Shells and Skins
10.2.2 Seeds
10.2.3 Pulp, Paste, Puree
10.3 Methods for the Recovery of Bioactive Compounds
10.3.1 Technologies for Extraction and Recovery
10.3.1.1 Pulsed Electric Field
10.3.1.2 Enzymatic Extraction
10.3.1.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
10.3.1.4 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
10.3.1.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
10.3.1.6 Solid-State Fermentation Assisted Extraction (SSFAE)
10.3.2 Bioactive Compounds
10.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Sustainable Utilization of Tea Waste
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Current Scenario of Tea and Tea Waste Production
11.1.2 Composition of Tea and Tea Waste
11.2 Extraction of Bioactive Antioxidant Compounds from Waste Tea
11.3 Application of Tea Waste and Tea Waste-Derived Value-Added Products in the Environmental Sector
11.3.1 Production of Porous Activated Carbon and Biochar
11.3.2 Wastewater Treatment by Tea Waste-Derived Adsorbents
11.3.2.1 Removal of Dyes
11.3.2.2 Removal of Heavy Metals
11.3.2.3 Removal of Pharmaceutical and Other Contaminants
11.3.3 Purification of Drinking Water
11.3.4 Remediation of Air and Soil
11.4 Application of Tea Wastes for the Generation of Bio-Energy
11.4.1 Gaseous Biofuel
11.4.2 Liquid Biofuel
11.5 Other Utilization of Tea Wastes
11.6 Conclusions
References
Part III: Bioactive Metabolites from Agricultural Waste
Chapter 12: Vitis Wastes as a Source of Stilbenes: Natural Occurrence, Factors Affecting Biosynthesis, and Valorization in Agr...
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Vine Wastes: Canes
12.2.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Canes
12.2.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Canes
12.2.2.1 Genetic Factors
12.2.2.2 Environmental Factors
12.2.2.3 External Factors (Human Management)
12.2.3 Application of Cane Biomass in Agri-Food Industry
12.2.3.1 Agriculture
12.2.3.2 Oenology
12.2.3.3 Medicine
12.2.3.4 Food
12.2.3.5 Cosmetics
12.3 Vine Wastes: Stems
12.3.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Stems
12.3.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Stems
12.3.2.1 Genetic Factors
12.3.2.2 Environmental Factors
12.3.2.3 External Factors (Human Management)
12.3.3 Application of Stem Biomass in Agri-Food Industry
12.3.3.1 Oenology
12.3.3.2 Medicine
12.3.3.3 Food
12.3.3.4 Cosmetics
12.4 Vine Wastes: Leaves
12.4.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Leaves
12.4.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Leaves
12.4.2.1 Genetic Factors
12.4.2.2 Environmental Factors
12.4.2.3 External Factors (Human Management)
12.4.3 Application of Leaves Biomass in Agri-Food Industry
12.4.3.1 Food
12.4.3.2 Medicine
12.5 Vine Wastes: Trunk
12.5.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Trunks
12.5.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Trunks
12.5.2.1 Genetic Factor
12.5.2.2 Environmental Factors
12.5.3 Application of Trunk Biomass in Agri-Food Industry
12.5.3.1 Agriculture
12.6 Vine Wastes: Roots
12.6.1 Stilbene Composition in Grapevine Roots
12.6.2 Factors Modulating Stilbene Biosynthesis in Roots
12.6.2.1 Genetic Factor
12.6.2.2 Environmental Factors
12.6.2.3 External Factors (Human Management)
12.6.3 Application of Root Biomass in Agri-Food Industry
12.6.3.1 Agriculture
12.6.3.2 Medicine
12.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
Chapter 13: Useful Bioactive Compounds from Olive Tree By-Products (Leaves, Branches, Fruits)
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Biophenol Compounds
13.2.1 Phenolic Acids
13.2.2 Phenolic Alcohols
13.2.3 Flavonoids
13.2.4 Secoiridoids
13.2.5 Lignans
13.3 Triterpenoids
13.4 Phytosterols
13.5 Tocopherols
13.6 Fatty Acids
13.7 The Macromolecules
13.7.1 Definition
13.7.1.1 Cellulose
13.7.1.2 Hemicellulose
13.7.1.3 Lignin
13.7.2 Application
13.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Fruit Pomaces as Valuable By-Products of Wine and Cider Industries
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Pomace Structure
14.2.1 Grape Pomace Structure
14.2.2 Apple Pomace Structure
14.3 Chemical and Nutritional Composition
14.3.1 Carbohydrates
14.3.2 Proteins
14.3.3 Fatty Acids
14.3.4 Phenolic Compounds
14.3.5 Dietary Fibers
14.3.6 Organic Acids
14.3.7 Amino Acids
14.3.8 Vitamins
14.3.9 Minerals
14.4 Extraction Methods of Pomace Bioactive Compounds
14.4.1 Ultrasound
14.4.2 Microwave
14.4.3 Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
14.4.4 Thermal Treatment
14.4.5 Enzymatic Treatment
14.4.6 Pressurized Liquid Extraction
14.4.7 Sub-/Supercritical Fluid Extraction
References
Chapter 15: Secondary Metabolites and Antioxidant Activity of the Solid-State Fermentation in Fruit Waste/Bagasse
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Solid-State Fermentation
15.3 Production of Microbial Secondary Metabolites of Biological Interest by FES
15.4 Methods of Extraction of Secondary Metabolites of the Solid-State Fermentation in Fruit Waste
15.5 Health
15.6 Alimentation
15.7 Functional Foods
15.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Green Extraction Techniques Applied to Recover Chemical Compounds from Olive-Derived Biomasses
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Extractive Fraction of Olive-Derived Biomasses and Extractable Bioactive Compounds
16.3 Green Extraction Technologies Applied to Recover Bioactive Compounds from Olive-Derived Biomasses: General Aspects
16.4 Theory and Application of Green Technologies to Extract Bioactive Compounds from Olive-Derived Biomasses
16.4.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
16.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Extraction
16.4.3 Supercritical CO2 Extraction
16.4.4 Pressurized Liquid Extraction
16.4.5 Electro-Based Extraction
16.4.6 Examples of Application
16.5 Large-Scale Extraction
16.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Production and Use of Hydrolates from the Distillation Process of Aromatic Plants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Hydrolate Production
17.3 Lavender Hydrolate
17.4 Thyme Hydrolate
17.5 Oregano Hydrolate
17.6 Savory Hydrolate
17.7 Mint Hydrolate
17.8 Sage Hydrolate
17.9 Rosemary Hydrolate
17.10 Rose Hydrolate
17.11 Citrus Hydrolate
17.12 Bay Laurel Hydrolate
17.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: From Agricultural Waste to Functional Food Products: An Overview
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Concept of Circular Bioeconomy in Functional Food Creation Based on Agricultural Waste Compounds
18.3 Valorization of Plant-Based Agricultural Waste
18.3.1 Fruit Waste
18.3.2 Vegetable Waste
18.3.3 Others
18.4 Agricultural Waste Bioactive Compounds as a Functional Food Ingredient
18.4.1 Bioactive Compounds in Agricultural Waste for Food Applications and Health Benefits
18.4.2 Bioactive Compounds and Dietary Fibres in Agricultural Waste as Potential Prebiotics for Food Applications and Health B...
18.5 Functional Food as a Source of Valuable Waste Compounds
18.5.1 Term `Functional Food´
18.5.2 Functional Food Products Based on Agricultural Waste Present on the Global Market
18.6 Conclusions
References
Part IV: Recent Advancements, Energy and Nanomaterials from Agricultural Waste
Chapter 19: Recent Advancements in Agricultural Residue Valorisation into Bio-Products
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Chemical Composition of Various Agricultural Residues
19.3 Valorisation of Agricultural Residues into Different Bio-Commodities
19.3.1 Conversion of Wastes into Fuels
19.3.2 Production of Valuable Biomaterials
19.3.2.1 Production of Biopolymers
19.3.2.2 Production of Cellulose Nanofibrils
19.3.2.3 Production of Biofertilisers
19.4 Advancements in Agricultural Residue Valorisation Through Nanotechnology
19.4.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
19.4.2 Rice Husk-Derived Si Nanomaterials
19.5 Challenges and Future Prospects in Agricultural Residue Valorisation
19.5.1 Recovery of Immobilised Enzyme
19.5.2 Nanotechnology and Enzyme Compassion
19.5.3 Commercialisation of the Implementation
19.5.4 Nanomaterials and Protracted Durability
19.6 Techno-Economic Analysis for Agricultural Residue Valorisation
19.6.1 Economic Metrics
19.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Biogas Energy from Animal Waste
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Anaerobic Digestion (AD) Process
20.2.1 Biogas
20.2.2 Biogas Production
20.3 Factors Influencing Biogas Production
20.4 The Methane Yield of Animal Manure-Based Biogas
20.5 Energy Generation from Biogas
20.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Recent Trends and Future Prospects of Nanotechnology for Agro-Waste Valorization into Biofuels
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Overview on Agro-Waste Types and Their Compositions
21.3 Recently Enabled Nanomaterials in Biofuel Processes
21.4 Nanotechnological Applications in Biofuel Production from Agro-Wastes
21.4.1 Biodiesel Production
21.4.2 Biohydrogen Production
21.4.3 Bioethanol Production
21.4.4 Biogas Production
21.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
Index