African American Odyssey The Combined Volume

Cover
Half Title page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Maps
Figures
Tables
Preface
About The African-American Odyssey, 7e
Chapter Revision Highlights
Revel™
Documents Available in Revel™
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Part I Becoming African American
Chapter 1 Africa, CA. 6000 BCE–CA. 1600 CE
1.1 A Huge and Diverse Land
1.2 The Birthplace of Humanity
1.3 Ancient Civilizations and Old Arguments
1.3.1 Egyptian Civilization
1.3.2 Nubia, Kush, Meroë, and Axum
1.4 West Africa
1.4.1 Ancient Ghana
Voices Al Bakri Describes Kumbi Saleh and Ghana’s Royal Court
1.4.2 The Empire of Mali, 1230–1468
1.4.3 The Empire of Songhai, 1464–1591
1.4.4 The West African Forest Region
Voices A Description of Benin City
Profile Nzinga Mbemba (Afonso I) of Kongo
1.5 Kongo and Angola
1.6 West African Society and Culture
1.6.1 Families and Villages
1.6.2 Women
1.6.3 Class and Slavery
1.6.4 Religion
1.6.5 Art and Music
1.6.6 Literature: Oral Histories, Poetry, and Tales
1.6.7 Technology
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 2 Middle Passage, CA. 1450–1809
2.1 The European Age of Exploration and Colonization
2.2 The Slave Trade in Africa and the Origins of the Atlantic Slave Trade
2.3 Growth of the Atlantic Slave Trade
2.4 The African-American Ordeal from Capture to Destination
2.4.1 The Crossing
2.4.2 The Slavers and Their Technology
2.4.3 A Slave’s Story
Profile Olaudah Equiano
2.4.4 A Captain’s Story
2.4.5 Provisions for the Middle Passage
2.4.6 Sanitation, Disease, and Death
2.4.7 Resistance and Revolt at Sea
Voices The Journal of a Dutch Slaver
2.4.8 Cruelty
2.4.9 African Women on Slave Ships
Profile Ayuba Suleiman Diallo of Bondu
Voices Dysentery (or the Bloody Flux)
2.5 Landing and Sale in the West Indies
2.6 Seasoning
2.7 The End of the Journey: Masters and Slaves in the Americas
2.8 The Ending of the Atlantic Slave Trade
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 3 Black People in Colonial North America, 1526–1763
3.1 The Peoples of North America
3.1.1 American Indians
3.1.2 The Spanish, French, and Dutch
3.1.3 The British and Jamestown
3.1.4 Africans Arrive in the Chesapeake
3.2 Black Servitude in the Chesapeake
Profile Anthony Johnson
3.2.1 Race and the Origins of Black Slavery
3.2.2 The Legal Recognition of Chattel Slavery
3.2.3 Bacon’s Rebellion and American Slavery
3.3 Plantation Slavery, 1700–1750
3.3.1 Tobacco Colonies
3.3.2 Low-Country Slavery
Voices A Description of an Eighteenth-Century Virginia Plantation
3.3.3 Plantation Technology
3.4 Slave Life in Early America
3.5 Miscegenation and Creolization
3.6 The Origins of African-American Culture
3.6.1 The Great Awakening
3.6.2 Language, Music, and Folk Literature
Voices Poem by Jupiter Hammon
3.6.3 The African-American Impact on Colonial Culture
3.7 Slavery in the Northern Colonies
3.8 Slavery in Spanish Florida and French Louisiana
3.9 African Americans in New Spain’s Northern Borderlands
3.10 Black Women in Colonial America
3.11 Black Resistance and Rebellion
Profile Francisco Menendez
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 4 Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for Independence, 1763–1783
4.1 The Crisis of the British Empire
4.2 The Declaration of Independence and African Americans
Profile Crispus Attucks
4.2.1 The Impact of the Enlightenment
4.2.2 African Americans in the Revolutionary Debate
4.3 The Black Enlightenment
Voices Boston’s Slaves Link Their Freedom to American Liberty
4.3.1 Phillis Wheatley and Poetry
4.3.2 Benjamin Banneker and Science
Voices Phillis Wheatley on Liberty and Natural Rights
4.4 African Americans in the War for Independence
4.4.1 Black Loyalists
4.4.2 Black Patriots
4.5 The Revolution and Emancipation
4.5.1 The Revolutionary Impact
4.5.2 The Revolutionary Promise
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 5 African Americans in the New Nation, 1783–1820
5.1 Forces for Freedom
5.1.1 Northern Emancipation
5.1.2 The Northwest Ordinance of 1787
5.1.3 Antislavery Societies in the North and the Upper South
Profile Elizabeth Freeman
5.1.4 Manumission and Self-Purchase
5.1.5 The Emergence of a Free Black Class in the South
5.2 Forces for Slavery
5.2.1 The U.S. Constitution
5.2.2 Cotton
5.2.3 The Louisiana Purchase and African Americans in the Lower Mississippi Valley
5.2.4 Conservatism and Racism
5.3 The Emergence of Free Black Communities
5.3.1 The Origins of Independent Black Churches
Voices Richard Allen on the Breakwith St. George’s Church
5.3.2 The First Black Schools
5.4 Black Leaders and Choices
Voices Absalom Jones Petitions Congress on Behalf of Fugitives Facing Reenslavement
Profile James Forten
5.4.1 Migration
5.4.2 Slave Uprisings
5.4.3 The White Southern Reaction
5.5 The War of 1812
5.6 The Missouri Compromise
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Connecting The Past The Great Awakening and the Black Church
Part II Slavery, Abolition, and the Quest for Freedom: The Coming of the Civil War, 1793–1861
Chapter 6 Life in the Cotton Kingdom, 1793–1861
6.1 The Expansion of Slavery
6.1.1 Slave Population Growth
6.1.2 Ownership of Slaves in the Old South
6.2 Slave Labor in Agriculture
6.2.1 Tobacco
Profile Solomon Northup
6.2.2 Rice
6.2.3 Sugar
6.2.4 Cotton
6.2.5 Cotton and Technology
6.2.6 Other Crops
6.3 House Servants and Skilled Slaves
6.3.1 Urban and Industrial Slavery
6.4 Punishment
Voices Frederick Douglass on the Readiness of Masters to Use the Whip
6.5 The Domestic Slave Trade
6.6 Slave Families
Profile William Ellison
6.6.1 Children
Voices A Slaveholder Describes a New Purchase
6.6.2 Sexual Exploitation
6.6.3 Diet
6.6.4 Clothing
6.6.5 Health
6.7 The Socialization of Slaves
6.7.1 Religion
6.8 The Character of Slavery and Slaves
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 7 Free Black People in Antebellum America, 1820–1861
7.1 Demographics of Freedom
7.2 The Jacksonian Era
7.3 Limited Freedom in the North
7.3.1 Black Laws
7.3.2 Disfranchisement
7.3.3 Segregation
7.4 Black Communities in the Urban North
7.4.1 The Black Family
7.4.2 Poverty
7.4.3 The Northern Black Elite
7.4.4 Inventors
Voices Maria W. Stewart on the Condition of Black Workers
7.4.5 Professionals
Profile Stephen Smith and William Whipper, Partners in Business and Reform
7.4.6 Artists and Musicians
7.4.7 Authors
7.5 African-American Institutions
7.5.1 Churches
7.5.2 Schools
Voices The Constitution of the Pittsburgh African Education Society
7.5.3 Voluntary Associations
7.6 Free African Americans in the Upper South
7.6.1 Free African Americans in the Deep South
7.6.2 Free African Americans in the Far West
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 8 Opposition to Slavery, 1730–1833
8.1 Antislavery Begins in America
8.1.1 From Gabriel to Denmark Vesey
8.2 The Path toward a More Radical Antislavery Movement
8.2.1 Slavery and Politics
8.2.2 The Second Great Awakening
8.2.3 The Benevolent Empire
8.3 Colonization
8.3.1 African-American Advocates of Colonization
8.3.2 Black Opposition to Colonization
Voices William Watkins Opposes Colonization
8.4 Black Abolitionist Women
Profile Maria W. Stewart
8.4.1 The Baltimore Alliance
Voices A Black Woman Speaks Out on the Right to Education
8.5 David Walker and Nat Turner
Profile David Walker
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 9 Let Your Motto Be Resistance, 1833–1850
9.1 A Rising Tide of Racism and Violence
9.1.1 Antiblack and Antiabolitionist Riots
9.1.2 Texas and the War against Mexico
9.2 The Antislavery Movement
9.2.1 The American Anti-Slavery Society
9.2.2 Black and Women’s Antislavery Societies
Profile Sojourner Truth
9.2.3 Moral Suasion
9.3 Black Community Support
9.3.1 The Black Convention Movement
9.3.2 Black Churches in the Antislavery Cause
9.3.3 Black Newspapers
Voices Frederick Douglass Describes an Awkward Situation
9.4 The American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the Liberty Party
Profile Henry Highland Garnet
9.5 A More Aggressive Abolitionism
9.5.1 The Amistad and the Creole
9.5.2 The Underground Railroad
9.5.3 Technology and the Underground Railroad
9.5.4 Canada West
9.6 Black Militancy
9.6.1 Frederick Douglass
9.6.2 Revival of Black Nationalism
Voices Martin R. Delany Describes His Vision of a Black Nation
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 10 “And Black People Were at the Heart of It”: The United States Disunites Over Slavery, 1846–1861
10.1 The Lure of the West
10.1.1 Free Labor versus Slave Labor
10.1.2 The Wilmot Proviso
10.1.3 African Americans and the Gold Rush
10.1.4 California and the Compromise of 1850
10.1.5 Fugitive Slave Laws
Voices African Americans Respond to the Fugitive Slave Law
10.2 Fugitive Slaves
10.2.1 William and Ellen Craft
Profile Mary Ellen Pleasant
10.2.2 Shadrach Minkins
10.2.3 The Battle at Christiana
10.2.4 Anthony Burns
10.2.5 Margaret Garner
Profile Thomas Sims, a Fugitive Slave
10.2.6 Freedom in Canada
10.2.7 The Rochester Convention, 1853
10.2.8 Nativism and the Know-Nothings
10.2.9 Uncle Tom’s Cabin
10.2.10 The Kansas-Nebraska Act
10.2.11 Preston Brooks Attacks Charles Sumner
10.3 The Dred Scott Decision
10.3.1 Questions for the Court
10.3.2 Reaction to the Dred Scott Decision
10.3.3 White Northerners and Black Americans
10.3.4 The Lincoln–Douglas Debates
10.3.5 Abraham Lincoln and Black People
Profile Martin Delany
10.4 John Brown and the Raid on Harpers Ferry
10.4.1 Planning the Raid
10.4.2 The Raid
10.4.3 The Reaction
10.5 The Election of Abraham Lincoln
10.5.1 Black People Respond to Lincoln’s Election
10.5.2 Disunion
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Connecting The Past Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and Black Autobiography
Part III The Civil War, Emancipation, and Black Reconstruction: The Second American Revolution
Chapter 11 Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War, 1861–1865
11.1 Lincoln’s Aims
11.2 Black Men Volunteer and Are Rejected
11.2.1 Union Policies toward Confederate Slaves
11.2.2 “Contraband”
11.2.3 Lincoln’s Initial Position
11.2.4 Lincoln Moves toward Emancipation
11.2.5 Lincoln Delays Emancipation
11.2.6 Black People Reject Colonization
11.2.7 The Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation
11.2.8 Northern Reaction to Emancipation
11.2.9 Political Opposition to Emancipation
11.3 The Emancipation Proclamation
11.3.1 Limits of the Proclamation
11.3.2 Effects of the Proclamation on the South
Profile Elizabeth Keckley
11.4 Black Men Fight for the Union
11.4.1 The First South Carolina Volunteers
11.4.2 The Louisiana Native Guards
11.4.3 The Second South Carolina Volunteers
11.4.4 The 54th Massachusetts Regiment
11.4.5 Black Soldiers Confront Discrimination
11.4.6 Black Men in Combat
11.4.7 The Assault on Battery Wagner
Voices Lewis Douglass Describes the Fighting at Battery Wagner
11.4.8 Olustee
11.4.9 The Crater
11.4.10 The Confederate Reaction to Black Soldiers
11.4.11 The Abuse and Murder of Black Troops
11.4.12 The Fort Pillow Massacre
11.4.13 Black Men in the Union Navy
Voices A Black Nurse on the Horrors of War and the Sacrifice of Black Soldiers
11.4.14 Liberators, Spies, and Guides
Profile Harriet Tubman
11.4.15 Violent Opposition to Black People
11.4.16 Union Troops and Slaves
11.4.17 Refugees
11.5 Black People and the Confederacy
11.5.1 Skilled and Unskilled Slaves in Southern Industry
11.5.2 The Impressment of Black People
11.5.3 Confederates Enslave Free Black People
11.5.4 Black Confederates
11.5.5 Personal Servants
11.5.6 Black Men Fighting for the South
11.5.7 Black Opposition to the Confederacy
11.5.8 The Confederate Debate on Black Troops
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 12 The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction, 1865–1868
12.1 The End of Slavery
12.1.1 Differing Reactions of Former Slaves
12.1.2 Reuniting Black Families
12.2 Land
12.2.1 Special Field Order #15
12.2.2 The Port Royal Experiment
12.2.3 The Freedmen’s Bureau
12.2.4 Southern Homestead Act
Voices Jourdon Anderson’s Letter to His Former Master
12.2.5 Sharecropping
12.2.6 The Black Church
Voices A Freedmen’s Bureau Commissioner Tells Freed People What Freedom Means
12.2.7 Class and Status
12.3 Education
12.3.1 Black Teachers
12.3.2 Black Colleges
12.3.3 Response of White Southerners
Profile Charlotte E. Ray
Voices A Northern Black Woman on Teaching Freedmen
12.4 Violence
12.4.1 The Crusade for Political and Civil Rights
12.5 Presidential Reconstruction under Andrew Johnson
12.5.1 Black Codes
12.5.2 Black Conventions
12.5.3 The Radical Republicans
12.5.4 Radical Proposals
12.5.5 The Freedmen’s Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights Bill
12.5.6 Johnson’s Vetoes
Profile Aaron A. Bradley
12.5.7 The Fourteenth Amendment
12.5.8 Radical Reconstruction
12.5.9 Universal Manhood Suffrage
12.5.10 Black Politics
12.5.11 Sit-Ins and Strikes
12.5.12 The Reaction of White Southerners
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 13 The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction, 1868–1877
13.1 Constitutional Conventions
13.1.1 Elections
13.1.2 Black Political Leaders
Profile The Gibbs Brothers
13.2 The Issues
13.2.1 Education and Social Welfare
13.2.2 Civil Rights
13.2.3 Economic Issues
13.2.4 Land
13.2.5 Business and Industry
13.2.6 Black Politicians: An Evaluation
13.2.7 Republican Factionalism
13.2.8 Opposition
Profile The Rollin Sisters
13.3 The Ku Klux Klan
Voices An Appeal for Help against the Klan
13.3.1 The West
13.4 The Fifteenth Amendment
13.4.1 The Enforcement Acts
13.4.2 The North and Reconstruction
13.4.3 The Freedmen’s Bank
13.4.4 The Civil Rights Act of 1875
Voices Black Leaders Support the Passage of a Civil Rights Act
13.5 The End of Reconstruction
13.5.1 Violent Redemption and the Colfax Massacre
13.5.2 The Shotgun Policy
13.5.3 The Hamburg Massacre and the Ellenton Riot
13.5.4 The “Compromise” of 1877
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Connecting The Past Voting and Politics
Part IV Searching for Safe Spaces
Chapter 14 White Supremacy Triumphant: African Americans in the Late Nineteenth Century, 1877–1895
14.1 Politics
14.1.1 Black Congressmen
14.1.2 Democrats and Farmer Discontent
14.1.3 The Colored Farmers’ Alliance
14.1.4 The Populist Party
14.2 Disfranchisement
14.2.1 Evading the Fifteenth Amendment
14.2.2 Mississippi
14.2.3 South Carolina
14.2.4 The Grandfather Clause
14.2.5 The “Force Bill”
14.3 Segregation
14.3.1 Jim Crow
14.3.2 Segregation on the Railroads
14.3.3 Plessy v. Ferguson
14.3.4 Streetcar Segregation
14.3.5 Segregation Proliferates
Voices Majority and Dissenting Opinions on Plessy v. Ferguson
14.3.6 Racial Etiquette
14.4 Violence
14.4.1 Washington County, Texas
14.4.2 The Phoenix Riot
14.4.3 The Wilmington Riot
14.4.4 The New Orleans Riot
14.4.5 Lynching
14.4.6 Rape
14.4.7 Migration
Profile Ida Wells Barnett
14.4.8 The Liberian Exodus
14.4.9 The Exodusters
14.4.10 Migration within the South
14.4.11 Black Farm Families
14.4.12 Cultivating Cotton
14.4.13 Sharecroppers
Voices Cash and Debt for the Black Cotton Farmer
14.4.14 Black Landowners
14.4.15 White Resentment of Black Success
14.5 African Americans and the Legal System
14.5.1 Segregated Justice
Profile Johnson C. Whittaker
14.5.2 The Convict Lease System: Slavery by Another Name
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 15 African Americans Challenge White Supremacy, 1877–1918
15.1 Social Darwinism
15.2 Education and Schools: The Issues
15.2.1 Segregated Schools
15.2.2 The Hampton Model
15.2.3 Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee Model
15.2.4 Critics of the Tuskegee Model
Voices Thomas E. Miller and the Mission of the Black Land-Grant College
15.3 Church and Religion
15.3.1 The Church as Solace and Escape
15.3.2 The Holiness Movement and the Pentecostal Church
15.3.3 Roman Catholics and Episcopalians
Profile Henry McNeal Turner
15.4 Red versus Black: The Buffalo Soldiers
15.4.1 Discrimination in the Army
15.4.2 The Buffalo Soldiers in Combat
15.4.3 Civilian Hostility to Black Soldiers
15.4.4 Brownsville
15.4.5 African Americans in the Navy
15.4.6 The Black Cowboys
15.4.7 The Black Cowgirls
15.4.8 The Spanish-American War
15.4.9 Black Officers
15.4.10 “A Splendid Little War”
Voices Black Men in Battle in Cuba
15.5 African Americans and Their Role in the American Economy
15.5.1 African Americans and the World’s Columbian Exposition
15.5.2 Obstacles and Opportunities for Employment among African Americans
15.5.3 African Americans and Labor
15.5.4 Black Professionals
Profile Maggie Lena Walker
15.5.5 Music
Profile A Man and His Horse: Dr. William Key and Beautiful Jim Key
15.5.6 Sports
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 16 Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the Early Twentieth Century, 1895–1925
16.1 Booker T. Washington’s Approach
16.1.1 Washington’s Influence
16.1.2 The Tuskegee Machine
16.1.3 Opposition to Washington
16.2 W. E. B. Du Bois
Voices W. E. B. Du Boison Being Black in America
16.2.1 The Du Bois Critique of Washington
16.2.2 The Souls of Black Folk
16.2.3 The Talented Tenth
16.2.4 The Niagara Movement
16.2.5 The NAACP
16.2.6 Using the System
16.2.7 Du Bois and The Crisis
Profile Mary Church Terrell
16.2.8 Washington versus the NAACP
16.2.9 The Urban League
16.3 Black Women and the Club Movement
16.3.1 The NACW: “Lifting as We Climb”
16.3.2 Phillis Wheatley Clubs
Profile Jane Edna Hunter and the Phillis Wheatley Association
16.3.3 Anna Julia Cooper and Black Feminism
16.3.4 Women’s Suffrage
16.4 The Black Elite
16.4.1 The American Negro Academy
16.4.2 The Upper Class
16.4.3 Fraternities and Sororities
16.4.4 African-American Inventors
16.4.5 Presidential Politics
Profile George Washington Carver and Ernest Everett Just
16.5 Black Men and the Military in World War I
16.5.1 The Punitive Expedition to Mexico
16.5.2 World War I
16.5.3 Black Troops and Officers
16.5.4 Discrimination and Its Effects
16.5.5 Du Bois’s Disappointment
16.6 Race Riots
16.6.1 Atlanta, 1906
16.6.2 Springfield, 1908
16.6.3 East St. Louis, 1917
16.6.4 Houston, 1917
16.6.5 Chicago, 1919
16.6.6 Elaine, 1919
16.6.7 Tulsa, 1921
16.6.8 Rosewood, 1923
16.7 The Great Migration
16.7.1 Why Migrate?
16.7.2 Destinations
16.7.3 Migration from the Caribbean
16.7.4 Northern Communities
Voices A Migrant to the North Writes Home
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 17 African Americans and the 1920s, 1918–1929
17.1 Varieties of Racism
17.1.1 Scientific Racism
17.1.2 The Birth of a Nation
17.1.3 The Ku Klux Klan
17.2 Protest, Pride, and Pan-Africanism: Black Organizations in the 1920s
17.2.1 The NAACP
Voices The Negro National Anthem: "Lift Every Voice and Sing"
Profile James Weldon Johnson
17.2.2 “Up You Mighty Race”: Marcus Garvey and the UNIA
Voices Marcus Garvey Appeals for a New African Nation
17.2.3 Amy Jacques Garvey
17.2.4 The African Blood Brotherhood
17.2.5 Hubert Harrison
17.2.6 Pan-Africanism
17.3 Labor
17.3.1 The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
17.3.2 A. Philip Randolph
17.4 The Harlem Renaissance
17.4.1 Before Harlem
17.4.2 Writers and Artists
17.4.3 White People and the Harlem Renaissance
17.4.4 Harlem and the Jazz Age
17.4.5 Song, Dance, and Stage
Profile Bessie Smith
17.5 Sports
17.5.1 Rube Foster
17.5.2 College Sports
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Connecting The Past Migration
Part V The Great Depression and World War II
Chapter 18 Black Protest, Great Depression, and the New Deals, 1929–1940
18.1 The Cataclysm, 1929–1933
18.1.1 Harder Times for Black America
18.1.2 Black Businesses in the Depression: Collapse and Survival
18.1.3 The Failure of Relief
18.2 Black Protest during the Great Depression
18.2.1 The NAACP and Civil Rights Struggles
18.2.2 Du Bois and the “Voluntary Segregation” Controversy
18.2.3 Legal Battles against Discrimination in Education and Voting
18.2.4 Black Texans Fight for Educational and Voting Rights
18.2.5 Black Women Community Organizers
18.3 African Americans and the New Deal Era
18.3.1 Roosevelt and the First New Deal, 1933–1935
Voices A Black Sharecropper Details Abuse in the Administration of Agricultural Relief
18.3.2 Black Officials and the First New Deal
18.4 The Rise of Black Social Scientists
Profile Mary McLeod Bethune
18.4.1 Social Scientists and the New Deal
18.4.2 The Second New Deal
Profile Robert C. Weaver
18.4.3 The Rise of Black Politicians
18.4.4 Black Americans and the Democratic Party
18.4.5 The WPA and Black America
18.5 Misuses of Medical Science: The Tuskegee Study
18.6 Organized Labor and Black America
Voices A. Philip Randolph Inspires a Young Black Activist
18.7 The Communist Party and African Americans
18.7.1 The International Labor Defense and the “Scottsboro Boys”
18.7.2 Debating Communist Leadership
Profile Angelo Herndon
Profile Ralph Waldo Elison
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 19 Meanings of Freedom: Black Culture and Society, 1930–1950
19.1 Black Culture in a Midwestern City
19.2 The Black Culture Industry and American Racism
19.3 Black Music Culture: From Swing to Bebop
Profile Charlie Parker
19.4 Popular Culture for the Masses: Comic Strips, Radio, and Movies
19.4.1 The Comics
19.4.2 Radio and Jazz Musicians and Technological Change
Profile Duke Ellington
19.4.3 Radio and Black Disc Jockeys
19.4.4 Radio and Race
19.4.5 Radio and Destination Freedom
19.4.6 A Black Filmmaker: Oscar Micheaux
19.4.7 Black Hollywood: Race and Gender
19.5 The Black Chicago Renaissance
Voices Margaret Walker on Black Culture
19.5.1 Gospel in Chicago: Thomas A. Dorsey
Profile Langston Hughes
19.5.2 Chicago in Dance and Song: Katherine Dunham and Billie Holiday
Profile Billie Holiday and "Strange Fruit"
19.6 Black Visual Art
19.7 Black Literature
19.7.1 Richard Wright’s Native Son
19.7.2 James Baldwin Challenges Wright
19.7.3 Ralph Ellison and Invisible Man
19.8 African Americans in Sports
19.8.1 Jesse Owens and Joe Louis
19.8.2 Breaking the Color Barrier in Baseball
19.9 Black Religious Culture
19.9.1 Father Divine and the Peace Mission Movement
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 20 The World War II Era and the Seeds of a Revolution, 1940–1950
20.1 On the Eve of War, 1936–1941
20.1.1 African Americans and the Emerging International Crisis
20.1.2 A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington Movement
20.1.3 Executive Order 8802
20.2 Race and the U.S. Armed Forces
20.2.1 Institutional Racism in the American Military
20.2.2 The Costs of Military Discrimination
Profile Steven Robinson and the Montford Point Marines
20.2.3 Port Chicago “Mutiny”
20.2.4 Soldiers and Civilians Protest Military Discrimination
Profile William H. Hastie
20.2.5 Black Women in the Struggle to Desegregate the Military
20.2.6 The Beginning of Military Desegregation
Profile Mabel K. Staupers
Voices Separate but Equal Training for Black Army Nurses?
20.3 The Tuskegee Airmen
20.3.1 Technology: The Tuskegee Planes
Voices A Tuskegee Airman Remembers
20.3.2 The Transformation of Black Soldiers
20.4 African Americans on the Home Front
20.4.1 Black Workers: From Farm to Factory
20.4.2 The FEPC during the War
20.4.3 Anatomy of a Race Riot: Detroit, 1943
20.4.4 The G.I. Bill of Rights and Black Veterans
20.4.5 Old and New Protest Groups on the Home Front
Profile Bayard Rustin
20.4.6 Post–World War II Racial Violence
20.5 The Cold War and International Politics
20.5.1 African Americans in World Affairs: W. E. B. Du Bois and Ralph Bunche
20.5.2 Anticommunism at Home
20.5.3 Paul Robeson
20.5.4 Henry Wallace and the 1948 Presidential Election
20.5.5 Desegregating the Armed Forces
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Connecting The Past The Significance of the Desegregation of the U.S. Military
Part VI The Black Revolution
Chapter 21 The Long Freedom Movement, 1950–1970
21.1 The 1950s: Prejudice and Protest
21.2 The Road to Brown
21.2.1 Constance Baker Motley and Black Lawyers in the South
21.2.2 Brown and the Coming Revolution
21.3 Challenges to Brown
21.3.1 White Resistance
21.3.2 The Lynching of Emmett Till
21.4 New Forms of Protest: The Montgomery Bus Boycott
21.4.1 The Roots of Revolution
Voices Letter of the Montgomery Women's Political Council to Mayor W.A. Gayle
21.4.2 Rosa Parks
21.4.3 Montgomery Improvement Association
21.4.4 Martin Luther King, Jr.
Profile Rosa Louise McCauley Parks
21.4.5 Walking for Freedom
21.4.6 Friends in the North
21.4.7 Victory
Profile Clara Luper: Victory in Oklahoma
21.5 No Easy Road to Freedom: The 1960s
21.5.1 Martin Luther King, Jr. and the SCLC
21.5.2 Civil Rights Act of 1957
21.5.3 The Little Rock Nine
21.6 Black Youth Stand Up by Sitting Down
21.6.1 Sit-Ins: Greensboro, Nashville, Atlanta
21.6.2 The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
21.6.3 Freedom Rides
Profile Robert Parris Moses
21.7 A Sight to Be Seen: The Movement at High Tide
21.7.1 The Election of 1960
21.7.2 The Kennedy Administration and the Civil Rights Movement
21.7.3 Voter Registration Projects
21.7.4 The Albany Movement
Profile Fannie Lou Hamer
21.7.5 The Birmingham Confrontation
21.8 A Hard Victory
21.8.1 The March on Washington
21.8.2 The Civil Rights Act of 1964
21.8.3 Mississippi Freedom Summer
21.8.4 The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
21.8.5 Selma and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Profile Dorothy Irene Height
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 22 Black Nationalism, Black Power, and Black Arts, 1965–1980
22.1 The Rise of Black Nationalism
22.1.1 The Nation of Islam
22.1.2 Malcolm X’s New Departure
22.1.3 Stokely Carmichael and Black Power
22.1.4 The Black Panther Party
22.1.5 The FBI’s COINTELPRO and Police Repression
Voices The Black Panther Party Platform
22.1.6 Prisoners’ Rights
22.2 Black Urban Rebellions in the 1960s
22.2.1 Watts
22.2.2 Newark
22.2.3 Detroit
22.2.4 The Kerner Commission
22.2.5 Difficulties in Creating the Great Society
22.3 Johnson and King: The War in Vietnam
22.3.1 Black Americans and the Vietnam War
22.3.2 Project 100,000
22.3.3 Johnson: Vietnam Destroys the Great Society
Voices “Homosexuals Are Not Enemies of the People” Black Panther Party Founder, Huey P. Newton
22.3.4 King: Searching for a New Strategy
22.3.5 King on the Vietnam War
22.3.6 The Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Profile Muhammad Ali
22.4 The Black Arts Movement and Black Consciousness
22.4.1 Poetry and Theater
22.4.2 Music
Profile Lorraine Hansberry
22.4.3 The Black Student Movement: A Second Phase
22.4.4 The Orangeburg Massacre
22.4.5 Black Studies
22.5 The Presidential Election of 1968 and Richard Nixon
22.5.1 The “Moynihan Report”
22.5.2 Busing
22.5.3 Nixon and the War
22.6 The Rise of Black Elected Officials
22.6.1 The Gary Convention and the Black Political Agenda
22.6.2 Shirley Chisholm: “I Am the People’s Politician”
22.6.3 Black People Gain Local Offices
Voices Shirley Chisholm’s Speech to the U.S. House of Representatives
22.6.4 Economic Downturn
22.6.5 Black Americans and the Carter Presidency
22.6.6 Black Appointees
22.6.7 Carter’s Domestic Policies
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 23 Black Politics and President Barack Obama, 1980–2016
23.1 Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow Coalition
23.1.1 Black Voters Embrace President Bill Clinton
23.1.2 The Present Status of Black Politics
23.2 Ronald Reagan and the Conservative Reaction
23.2.1 The King Holiday
23.2.2 Dismantling the Great Society
23.3 Black Conservatives
23.3.1 The Thomas–Hill Controversy
Voices Black Women in Defense of Themselves
23.4 Debating the “Old” and the “New” Civil Rights
23.4.1 Affirmative Action
23.4.2 The Backlash
23.5 Black Political Activism at the End of the Twentieth Century
23.5.1 Reparations
23.5.2 TransAfrica and Black Internationalism
23.6 The Rise in Black Incarceration
23.6.1 Policing the Black Community
23.6.2 Black Men and Police Brutality: Where Is the Justice?
23.6.3 Human Rights in America
23.7 Black Politics, 1992–2001: The Clinton Presidency
23.7.1 “It’s the Economy, Stupid!”
23.7.2 Welfare Reform, Mass Incarceration, and the Black Family
23.7.3 Black Politics in the Clinton Era
23.7.4 The Contested 2000 Election
23.7.5 Bush v. Gore
23.8 Republican Triumph
23.8.1 George W. Bush’s Black Cabinet
23.8.2 September 11, 2001
23.8.3 War
23.8.4 Black Politics in the Bush Era
23.8.5 Bush’s Second Term
23.8.6 The Iraq War
23.8.7 Hurricane Katrina and the Destruction of Black New Orleans
23.9 Barack Obama, President of the United States, 2008–2016
23.9.1 Obama versus McCain
23.9.2 Obama versus Romney
Profile Barack Obama
Profile Michelle LaVaughn Robinson Obama
23.9.3 Factors Affecting the Elections of 2008 and 2012
23.9.4 The Consequential Presidency of Barack Obama
23.9.5 Twenty-Three Mass Shootings
23.10 Black Lives Matter
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Chapter 24 African Americans End the Twentieth Century and Enter into the Twenty-First Century, 1980–2016
24.1 Progress and Poverty: Income, Education, and Health
24.1.1 High-Achieving African Americans
24.1.2 African Americans’ Quest for Economic Security
24.1.3 Black Americans in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Profile Mark Dean
24.2 The Persistence of Black Poverty
24.2.1 Deindustrialization and Black Oakland
24.2.2 Racial Incarceration
24.2.3 Black Education a Half-Century after Brown
24.2.4 The Black Health Gap
24.3 African Americans at the Center of Art and Culture
Profile Michael Jackson
24.4 The Hip-Hop Nation
24.4.1 Origins of a New Music: A Generation Defines Itself
24.4.2 Rap Music Goes Mainstream
24.4.3 Gangsta Rap
24.5 African-American Intellectuals
24.5.1 African-American Studies Come of Age
24.6 Black Religion at the Dawn of the Millennium
24.6.1 Black Christians on the Front Line
24.6.2 Tensions in the Black Church
24.6.3 Black Muslims
24.7 Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam
24.7.1 Millennium Marches
24.8 Complicating Black Identity in the Twenty-First Century
24.8.1 Immigration and African Americans
24.8.2 Black Feminism
24.8.3 Gay and Lesbian African Americans
Voices “Our National Virtues”: U.S. Attorney General Loretta E. Lynch
on LBGTQ Rights
Conclusion
Chapter Timeline
Review Questions
Retracing the Odyssey
Recommended Reading
Additional Bibliography
Connecting The Past The Significance of Black Culture
Epilogue
The Declaration of Independence
The Constitution of the United States of America
The Emancipation Proclamation
Key Provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Key Provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Glossary Key Terms and Concepts
Presidents and Vice Presidents of the United States
Historically Black Four-Year Colleges and Universities
Photo and Text Credits
Index