Mycotoxins are the metabolites of fungus and are reported to contaminate nearly 25% of the food produced worldwide. The mycotoxins of most significance are the aflatoxins due to their severe health implications and their prevalence in food commodities on a larger scale. Aflatoxins are produced by certain species of fungi the most prominent among which are Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nominous. Food commodities of African and South Asian countries are especially reported to have aflatoxins well beyond the allowable limits but due to the global trade of food commodities developed countries are also prone towards the perils of aflatoxins. Moreover, climate changes may have a substantial impact on the distribution and global prevalence of aflatoxins in the near future.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified the aflatoxins as group 1 category carcinogen. Aflatoxins are also reported as teratogenic, mutagenic, growth retardant, immunosuppressant and may also cause nervous system and reproductive system disorders. Preventive approaches involving good manufacturing from “farm to fork” are the major focus of the current food industry.
The aim of our book is to provide readers with the most recent data and up-to-date studies from aflatoxins research, with specific focuses on (i) the impact of aflatoxins on human health, (ii) new approaches by the researchers from different parts of the world to degrade aflatoxins and (iii) potential preventive approaches that can significantly lessen the burden of aflatoxins in food products
Author(s): Khalid Rehman Hakeem, Carlos A. F. Oliveira, Amir Ismail
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2022
Language: English
Pages: 321
City: Cham
Preface
About the Book
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Aflatoxins: An Introduction
1.1 History of Aflatoxins
1.2 Production and Metabolism of Aflatoxins
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Aflatoxins
1.4 Toxicological Properties of Aflatoxins
1.5 Prevalence of Aflatoxins
1.6 Aflatoxin Regulations
1.7 Analytical Techniques
1.8 Prevention and Control of Aflatoxins
1.8.1 Preventive Approaches
1.8.2 Decontamination
1.8.2.1 Physical Methods
1.8.2.2 Chemical Methods
1.8.2.3 Biological Methods
1.9 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 2: Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
2.1 Biosynthesis
2.2 Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
2.3 Aflatoxin Biosynthetic Pathway
2.3.1 Acetate to Norsolorinic Acid
2.3.2 Norsolorinic Acid to Averantin
2.3.3 Averantin to 5'-Hydroxyaverantin
2.3.4 5′-Hydroxyaverantin to Averufin
2.3.5 Averufin to Versiconal Hemiacetal Acetate
2.3.6 Versiconal Hemiacetal Acetate to Versiconal
2.3.7 Versiconal to Versicolorin B
2.3.8 Versicolorin B to Versicolorin a
2.3.9 Versicolorin a to Demethylsterigmatocystin and Versicolorin B to Dihydrodemethylsterigmatocystin
2.3.10 Demethylsterigmatocystin to Sterigmatocystin and Dihydrodemethylsterigmatocystin to Dihydrosterigmatocystin
2.3.11 Sterigmatocystin to O-Methylsterigmatocystin and DHST to Dihydro-O-Methylsterigmatocystin
2.3.12 Formation of Aflatoxin B and Aflatoxin G
2.3.13 Formation of Aflatoxin M
2.4 Factors Affecting Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
2.4.1 Oxidative Stress
2.4.2 Carbon
2.4.3 Nitrogen
2.4.4 pH
2.4.5 Light
2.4.6 Temperature
2.4.7 Water Activity
2.5 Metabolism of Aflatoxin B1
2.5.1 Aflatoxin B1–8,9-Epoxide
2.5.2 AFQ1
2.5.3 AFP1
2.5.4 Aflatoxicol
2.5.5 AFH1
2.5.6 AFB2a
2.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Worldwide Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Food and Feed
3.1 Introduction
3.2 World Population Growth and Food Production Level
3.3 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Feed and Food
3.3.1 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Cereals
3.3.2 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Oil Seeds
3.3.3 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Spices
3.3.4 Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Milk and Dairy Products
3.4 Aflatoxin Safety Regulation
3.5 Mycotoxins: Hidden Toxins
3.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Exposure Assessment of Aflatoxins in Humans
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Human Biomonitoring of Aflatoxin Exposure
4.3 Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Blood
4.4 Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Urine
4.5 Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Breast Milk
4.6 Biomarkers of Aflatoxin Exposure in Hair
4.7 Analytical Methods to Identify Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Biological Fluids
4.8 Exposure Assessment Through Dietary Intake
4.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Health Effects of Aflatoxins in Fetus, Infants, and Children
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Health Effects of Aflatoxins in Fetus, Infants, and Children
5.2.1 Aflatoxin Exposure and Birth Defects
5.2.1.1 Low Birthweight
5.2.1.2 Small-for-Gestational Age
5.2.1.3 Preterm Birth
5.2.1.4 Possible Mechanisms of Aflatoxin-Induced Birth Defects
5.2.2 Aflatoxin Exposure and Child Undernutrition
5.2.2.1 Stunting, Wasting, and Underweight
5.2.2.2 Severe Acute Malnutrition
5.2.2.3 Possible Mechanisms of Aflatoxin-Induced Growth Impairment
5.2.3 Aflatoxin and Immunosuppression
5.2.4 Aflatoxin Exposure and Hepatic Dysfunction
5.2.4.1 Liver Cancer
5.2.4.2 Neonatal Jaundice
5.2.4.3 Other Hepatic Illnesses
5.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Aflatoxin’s Health Impacts on Adults and Elderly
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Aflatoxin’s Impact on Hepatic Functioning
6.3 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Reproductive System
6.4 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Urinary System
6.5 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Immune System
6.6 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Nervous System
6.7 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Regulations for Aflatoxins in Developing and Industrialized Economies
7.1 Mycotoxins
7.2 Aflatoxins
7.2.1 Aflatoxin Producers
7.2.2 Types of Aflatoxins
7.2.3 Chemistry of Aflatoxins
7.2.4 Aflatoxin in Food
7.2.5 Regulations Regarding Aflatoxin
7.2.5.1 FAO Inquiry Regarding Regulations
7.2.5.2 Survey’s Results
7.2.6 Regulations in Specific Regions
7.2.6.1 Africa
7.2.6.2 Asia and Oceania
7.2.6.3 Europe
7.2.6.4 Latin America
7.2.6.5 North America
7.2.7 Worldwide Limitations of Aflatoxins
7.2.7.1 Aflatoxin B1 Regulations
7.2.7.2 Total Aflatoxin Regulation in Food
7.2.7.3 Aflatoxin M1 Regulations
7.2.7.4 Aflatoxin B1 in Feed
7.2.7.5 Total Aflatoxin Regulations in Feed
7.2.8 Aflatoxin Regulation in Rice
7.2.8.1 Regulations in European Union
7.2.8.2 Regulations in the United States
7.2.8.3 Regulations in Asia
7.2.9 Worldwide Limitations for Other Mycotoxins
7.2.9.1 Patulin
7.2.9.2 Ochratoxin A
7.2.9.3 Zearalenone
7.2.9.4 Fumonisins
7.2.10 Harmonized Regulations in the World
7.2.10.1 ASEAN
7.2.10.2 MERCOSUR
7.2.10.3 European Union
7.2.10.4 Australia and New Zealand
7.2.10.5 Codex Alimentarius
7.2.11 Worldwide Review of Aflatoxin Occurrences
7.2.11.1 Occurrence in Asia
7.2.11.2 Situation of Aflatoxin in Pakistan
7.2.11.3 Situation of Aflatoxin in Europe
7.2.11.4 Situation of African Countries
7.2.11.5 Situation of America and Latin America
7.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Analytical Methods for Detection and Quantification of Aflatoxins
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Fundamentals of Analytical Methods
8.3 Sample Extraction and Cleanup for Determination of Aflatoxins
8.3.1 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
8.3.2 Solid-Phase Extraction
8.3.3 Immunoaffinity Columns
8.3.4 Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction
8.3.5 QuEChERS
8.4 Detection and Quantification of Aflatoxins
8.4.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
8.4.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Fluorescence Detector
8.4.3 Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry Detector
8.4.4 Screening and Rapid Methods
8.5 Analytical Method Validation
8.6 Multiclass-Mycotoxin Methods of Analysis
8.7 Multi-Residue Methods of Analysis
8.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Removal and Detoxification of Aflatoxins
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methods of Removal
9.2.1 Physical Methods
9.2.1.1 Physical Separation and Cleaning
9.2.1.2 Heating Treatment and Humidity
9.2.1.3 Treatment by Thermal Microwave
9.2.1.4 Irradiation Treatment
9.2.1.5 Electrolyzed Water (EOW) Treatment
9.2.1.6 Pulsed Light Technology to Remove AFB1
9.2.2 Chemical Methods to Remove Aflatoxin
9.2.2.1 Ammonia Decontamination Treatment
9.2.2.2 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Treatment
9.2.2.3 Lactic Acid and Citric Acid Treatment
9.2.2.4 Ozonation Treatment
9.2.3 Biological Methods to Remove Aflatoxin
9.2.3.1 Spectrum of Bacteria Present in Soil
9.2.3.2 Fungi
9.2.3.3 Yeasts and Lactic Acid Bacteria
9.2.3.4 Aflatoxin Degradation by Enzymes
9.2.3.5 Cold Plasma Technology to Remove AFB1
9.2.3.6 Sorbent Additives for Degradation of AFB1
9.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Physical Decontamination and Degradation of Aflatoxins
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Adsorption
10.2.1 Separation
10.2.2 Solvent Extractions
10.2.3 Mineral Adsorbents
10.2.4 Magnetic Carbon
10.3 Thermal Processes
10.3.1 Cooking
10.3.2 Roasting
10.3.3 Baking
10.3.4 Extrusion
10.3.5 Microwave
10.3.6 Infrared
10.4 Nonthermal Methods
10.4.1 Radiation
10.4.1.1 Ionizing
X-rays
Ultraviolet Rays
Gamma Rays
Electron Beam
Pulsed Light
10.4.1.2 Nonionizing
10.4.2 Cold Plasma
10.4.3 Electrolyzed Water
10.4.4 Ozonation
10.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field
10.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Chemical Degradation of Aflatoxins
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Toxicity and Safety Aspects
11.3 Use of Chemical Methods for Microbial Inactivation
11.4 The Use of Chemical Methods for AF Degradation
11.4.1 Ozone
11.4.2 Acid and Alkaline Treatment
11.4.3 Hydrogen Peroxide
11.4.4 Chlorine Dioxide Gas
11.4.5 Plant Extracts and their Phytochemicals
11.4.6 Chemical Methods Applied for AFM1 Degradation
11.5 Effects of Chemical Methods on Human and Animal Foods
11.5.1 Ozonation
11.5.2 Acid and Alkaline Treatment
11.5.3 Hydrogen Peroxide
11.5.4 Ammoniation
11.6 Nanotechnological Methods for AF Mitigation
11.7 Concluding Remarks and Trends
References
Chapter 12: Biological Decontamination of Aflatoxins
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biological Approaches for Aflatoxin Decontamination
12.3 Aflatoxin Decontamination by Microbial Adsorption
12.3.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria
12.3.2 Yeasts
12.4 Aflatoxin Decontamination by Microbial Degradation
12.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 13: Climate Change and the Impact on Aflatoxin Contamination in Foods: Where Are We and What Should be Expected?
13.1 Climate Change and Mycotoxins
13.2 Impact of Climate on Aflatoxin Production and Food Contamination
13.2.1 Health Consequences of Exposure to Aflatoxins
13.2.2 Aflatoxins’ Worldwide Legislation and Notifications
13.2.3 Aflatoxin Producers and Impact of Environmental Factors
13.2.4 Impact of Climate Change on Aflatoxin Contamination: Examples of Concern
13.3 Modelling the Effects of Climate Change Future Scenarios on Mycotoxin Contamination
13.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 14: Aflatoxins: A Brief Summary
14.1 Aflatoxins: A Brief Summary
14.2 Recommendations for Management of Aflatoxin Control and Related Health Risks
14.3 Future Perspectives
References
