Advances in Understanding Soil Degradation

Contents
1 Understanding Soils: Their Functions, Use and Degradation
Abstract
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Soils, Ecosystems and Humans
1.2.1 Pedosphere and Anthroposphere
1.2.2 Soil Functions
1.2.3 Soils for Sustainable Development of Humans in the Anthropocene
1.2.4 Soils as Compartments of Land and Landscapes
1.2.5 Land Use and Stress on Soils
1.3 Assessment of Soil Performance
1.3.1 Concepts of Soil Fertility, Soil Quality and Soil Health
1.3.2 Methods and Indicators of Soil Performance
1.4 Soil Degradation
1.4.1 Definitions and Concepts of Assessment and Monitoring
1.4.2 Soil State Indication on Degradation and Desertification
1.5 Towards a Comprehensive Field Diagnostic System of Soil Performance
1.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
2 Types of Physical Soil Degradation and Implications for Their Prevention and Monitoring
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Physical Soil Degradation
2.2.1 Soil Erosion by Water
2.2.2 Soil Erosion by Wind
2.2.3 Soil Erosion by Tillage
2.2.4 Soil Compaction
2.2.5 Soil Sealing
2.2.6 Other Types of Soil Physical Degradation
2.3 Gaps of Knowledge and Tasks in Exploring Physical Soil Degradation
2.4 Conclusions
References
3 Understanding and Monitoring Chemical and Biological Soil Degradation
Abstract
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Chemical Soil Degradation
3.2.1 Pollution
3.2.2 Acidification
3.2.3 Salinization and Alkalinization
3.2.4 Nutrient Depletion
3.2.5 Eutrophication
3.3 Biological Soil Degradation
3.3.1 Degradation of Soil Biota and Biodiversity
3.3.2 Soil Organic Matter Depletion
3.4 Hotspots of Chemical and Biological Soil Degradation
3.4.1 Urban Soils
3.4.2 Soils in Drylands
3.4.3 Arctic Soils
3.4.4 Steppe Soils of the Eurasian Loess Belt
3.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
4 Classification and Causes of Soil Degradation by Irrigation in Russian Steppe Agrolandscapes
Abstract
4.1 Introduction: Soil Degradation in Russian Steppe Agrolandscapes
4.2 Causes for the Degradation of Irrigated Soils in Agricultural Landscapes
4.3 Classification of Irrigation Degradation in Agricultural Landscapes
4.3.1 Physical Degradation
4.3.2 Chemical Degradation
4.3.3 Physico-Chemical Soil Degradation
4.3.4 Biological Soil Degradation
4.3.5 Hydrological Soil Degradation
4.3.6 Degree of Degradation
4.3.7 Rate of Degradation
4.3.8 Nature of Degradation
4.3.9 Reversibility of Degradation
4.3.9.1 Resistance to Degradation
4.4 Conclusion and Outcomes
References
5 Desertification in Western Siberia: Identification, Assessment and Driving Forces in Temporal Scale
Abstract
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Study Area
5.2.1 Regional Geoecological Preconditions
5.3 Analysis of Data and Approaches
5.3.1 Evaluation of Current “Desertification Assessment Systems”
5.3.2 Development of a Regionally Adapted Indicator System
5.3.3 Identification and Analysis of Desertification Processes in the Northern Kulunda Steppe as a Systemic Problem
5.3.4 Selected Biophysical Desertification Indicators
5.3.4.1 Deflation
5.3.4.2 Water Erosion
5.3.4.3 Soil Salinity
5.4 Driving Forces and Variation in Temporal Scale
5.4.1 Climate Change
5.4.2 Anthropogenic Causes
5.4.3 Temporal Model on Desertification and Land Use Change
5.5 Discussion
5.6 Conclusions
References
6 Environmental and Economic Assessment of Land Degradation in Different Regions of the Russian Plain
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Materials and Methods
6.3 Economic Assessment of Land Degradation
6.3.1 Belgorod Region
6.3.2 Lipetsk Region
6.3.3 Tula Region
6.3.3.1 Factor Correlation and Regression Analysis
Spatial Model
Dynamic Model
6.3.3.2 Action/Inaction Estimation Method
6.4 Comparison of Economic Variables on Land Degradation in Regions Studied
6.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
7 Measurement and Assessment of Snowmelt Erosion in Western Siberia
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Study Regions and Relief Characteristics
7.3 Key Plot Characteristics
7.4 Climatic Conditions of Study Sites as Related to Snowmelt Erosion
7.4.1 Air Temperature in Pre-winter, Winter and Early Spring
7.4.2 Precipitation During the Winter
7.4.3 Soil Moisture in the Pre-winter Period, During the Melting of Snow
7.4.4 Depth of Soil Freezing
7.4.5 Weather Conditions During the Snowmelt Period
7.5 Field Measurements of the Main Components of the Soil Erosion Process
7.6 Assessment of Soil Erosion Effects
7.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
8 The Potential Impact of Climate Change and Land Use on Future Soil Erosion, Based on the Example of Southeast Serbia
Abstract
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials and Methods
8.2.1 Study Area
8.2.2 Climate Change Scenarios
8.2.3 Model Setup and Input Data
8.2.4 Differential Local Moran’s I Statistics
8.2.5 Land Use
8.2.5.1 Current Land Use
8.2.5.2 Land Use Change Scenario
8.3 Results and Discussion
8.3.1 Effects of Changes in the Rainfall Erosivity Factor
8.3.2 Effects of Changes in the Crop-Management Factor
8.3.3 Effects of Changes in Soil Erosion
8.3.4 Spatial Distribution of Soil Erosion Variables
8.3.5 Adaptation to Climate Change
8.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
9 Ground-Based Dust Deposition Monitoring in the Aral Sea Basin
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Study Design
9.3 Results
9.3.1 Meteorological Characteristic
9.3.2 Spatial and Temporal Dust Deposition Dynamics
9.3.3 Grain Size Composition of the Dust Samples and the Vertical Dust Profile
9.3.4 Mineralogical and Chemical Characterization of the Dust Samples
9.4 Conclusion
References
10 How Does Tillage Accelerate Soil Production and Enhance Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in Mudstone and Shale Outcrop Regions?
Abstract
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Materials and Methods
10.3 Results and Discussion
10.3.1 Why is a Certain Soil Layer Thickness Always Maintained Despite Severe Soil Erosion at a Rate of Approximately 5000 t km−2 yr−1?
10.3.2 What is the Result of the Balance Between the Gain of Bedrock-Derived Rock Fragments and Soil Loss Due to Tillage?
10.3.3 Does Tillage Play a Positive or Negative Role in SOC Sequestration for mudstone- and Shale-Derived Soil Regions?
10.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
11 Risks and Permissible Rates of Soil Erosion in the Agrolandscapes of the Crimea
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Materials and Methods
11.2.1 Characteristics of the Territory
11.2.2 Methods and Objects of Investigation
11.3 Results and Discussion
11.3.1 Regional Features of Erosion on the Territory of the Crimean Peninsula
11.3.2 Simulation of Permissible Erosion Rates
11.3.3 Geographical Analysis of Soil Formation Rates
11.4 Conclusions
References
12 Effect of Deer Browsing and Clear-Cutting of Trees on Soil Erosion in a Forest Ecosystem in Japan
Abstract
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Materials and Methods
12.2.1 Study Site
12.2.2 Experimental Design
12.3 Materials and Methods
12.3.1 Permeability and Bulk Density of Surface Soil
12.3.2 The Amount of Surface Runoff, Eroded Soil, and Litter Fall
12.3.3 The Amount of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Loss
12.3.4 The Amount of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Input
12.3.5 Tree Census
12.4 Results
12.4.1 Bulk Density and Permeability Coefficient
12.4.2 Soil Water Content
12.4.3 Amount of Surface Runoff and Eroded Soil
12.4.4 Size Distribution of Eroded Soil
12.4.5 Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Loss via Surface Runoff and Eroded Soil
12.4.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Input via Litter
12.4.7 Change of Understory Vegetation for 2 years
12.5 Discussion
12.5.1 The Effects of Deer Browsing and Clear-Cutting on the Pattern of Soil Erosion
12.5.2 The Adverse Effects of Surface Soil Loss on Forest Ecosystem
12.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
13 Soil Compaction Due to Agricultural Field Traffic: An Overview of Current Knowledge and Techniques for Compaction Quantification and Mapping
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Stress Propagation in Soil: Measurements and Modelling
13.3 Soil Compressive Behaviour
13.4 Impacts of Soil Compaction on Soil Properties and Functions
13.5 Economical and Ecological Costs of Soil Compaction
13.6 Mechanisms and Rates of Recovery of Soil Structure and Functions After Compaction
13.7 Non-invasive Methods to Quantify Compaction State and Processes
13.7.1 X-ray Computed Tomography
13.7.2 Geophysical Methods
13.7.3 Acoustic Methods
13.8 In Situ Measurements for Mapping the State of Soil Compaction
13.9 Summary, Conclusions and Outlook
References
14 Modeling of Field Traffic Intensity and Soil Compaction Risks in Agricultural Landscapes
Abstract
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Materials and Methods
14.2.1 Experimental Approach of This Study
14.2.2 Modeling of Field Traffic and Traffic Operations
14.2.3 Modeling the Actual Soil Compaction Risk Due to Real Field Traffic Activities
14.2.4 Data
14.3 Results and Discussion
14.3.1 Spatial Modeling of Wheel Track Patterns and Field Traffic Intensity
14.3.2 Spatial Modeling of the Spatially and Temporally Varying Soil Compaction Risk Due to Real Machinery Operations
14.4 Synthesis
14.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
15 Ecotoxicological Assessment of Brownfield Soil by Bioassay
Abstract
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Methods
15.2.1 Study Sites
15.2.2 Soil Sampling
15.2.3 Analytical Methods
15.2.3.1 Physical and Chemical Analyses
15.2.3.2 Microbiological Analysis
15.2.3.3 The Laboratory Bioassay
15.2.4 Statistics
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.3.1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Brownfield Soil
15.3.2 Microbiological Status of Soils Studied
15.3.3 Ecotoxicity of Brownfield Soils in a Laboratory Bioassay
15.3.3.1 Acute Phytotoxicity
15.3.3.2 Chronic Phytotoxicity
15.4 Conclusion
References
16 Methodology for the Preparation and Study of Multicomponent Certified Reference Materials for Soils Contaminated with Heavy Metals
Abstract
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Materials and Methods
16.3 Results
16.4 Conclusions
References
17 Bioaugmentation and Biostimulation: Comparison of Their Long-Term Effects on Ecotoxicity and Biological Activity of Oil-Contaminated Soil
Abstract
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Materials and Methods
17.3 Results and Discussion
17.3.1 Dynamics of Soil Chemical Properties
17.3.2 Hydrocarbon Biodegradation Under Different Bioremediation Strategies
17.3.3 Ecotoxicity Evaluation
17.3.4 Dynamics of Soil Biological Activity
17.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
18 Environmental Pollution in the Vicinity of an Aluminium Smelter in Siberia
Abstract
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Materials and Methods
18.2.1 Soil and Snow Sampling
18.2.2 Analytical Methods
18.3 Findings
18.4 Discussion
18.5 Conclusions
References
19 Technogenic Fluorine in the Siberian Steppe Soils Due to a Metallurgical Plant Operation
Abstract
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Materials and Methods
19.2.1 Site Description
19.2.2 Pedological Description
19.2.3 Climatic Conditions
19.2.4 Sampling of Soil and Snow Materials
19.2.5 Analytical Methods
19.2.6 Calculations
19.3 Findings
19.3.1 The Solid Substance
19.3.2 The Soluble Substance
19.3.3 Technogenic Load
19.3.4 Soil
19.3.5 Fluoride Vertical Migration
19.4 Discussion
19.4.1 The Solid Substance
19.4.2 The Soluble Substance
19.4.3 Technogenic Load on Soil
19.4.4 Fluoride Vertical Migration
19.4.5 Fluoride Geochemical Anomaly
19.5 Conclusion
References
20 Contamination of the Agroecosystem with Stable Strontium Due to Liming: An Overview and Experimental Data
Abstract
20.1 Introduction
20.1.1 Strontium in Soil
20.1.2 Strontium Toxicity to Animals and Humans
20.1.3 Strontium in Agricultural Chemicals (Fertilisers and Ameliorants)
20.1.4 Soil Organic Matter and Strontium
20.1.5 Solubility and Migration Ability of Calcium (Ca) and Strontium (Sr) in Soil
20.1.5.1 Dissolution and Migration of Ca in Soil
20.1.5.2 Dissolution and Migration of Sr in Soil
20.1.6 Plant Uptake of Calcium and Strontium: Ca/Sr Ratio and Barrier Height
20.1.7 Hypotheses and Goals of the Study
20.2 Materials and Methods
20.2.1 Soil and Lime Characteristics
20.2.2 Design of Experiment No. 1: Chalk Dissolution Rate
20.2.3 Design of Experiment No. 2: Precision Experiment (Sr Translocation in Tissues)
20.2.4 Design of Experiment No. 3: Pot Experiment (Sr Uptake by Varieties of Wheat)
20.2.5 Design of Experiment No. 4: Column Experiment (Migration of Ca and Sr)
20.2.6 Analytical Methods
20.3 Results and Discussion
20.3.1 Conversion Chalk (CC) Dissolution Rate
20.3.2 Calcium and Strontium Accumulation in Limed Soils
20.3.3 Calcium and Strontium Migration from the Limed Soil
20.3.4 Soil Organic Matter and Accumulation of Calcium and Strontium in Soil
20.3.5 Accumulation of Ca and Sr in Plants
20.3.5.1 Accumulation of Ca and Sr by Different Varieties of Spring Wheat in Vegetative and Generative Parts of the Plants
20.3.5.2 Accumulation of Sr and Ca in Generative and Vegetative Organs of the Spring Wheat
20.3.5.3 Barrier Height Indicator
20.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
21 Concentration, Background Values and Limits of Potential Toxic Elements in Soils of Central Serbia
Abstract
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Sampling and Analytical Methods
21.3 Statistical Data Processing
21.4 Description of the Study Area
21.5 Anthropogenic Soil Contamination
21.6 Content and Distribution of Potentially Toxic Elements in Soils of Central Serbia
21.7 Content of Potentially Toxic Elements as Related to Soil Types
21.8 Background Values and Limits of PTEs for the Territory of Central Serbia
21.9 Background Concentration and Limits of PTEs in Specific Regions
21.9.1 Braničevski Region
21.9.2 Moravički Region
21.10 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
22 Impact of Weathering and Revegetation on Pedological Characteristics and Pollutant Dispersion Control at Coal Fly Ash Disposal Sites
Abstract
22.1 Introduction
22.2 How the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Fly Ash Affect the Revegetation of Fly Ash Disposal Sites
22.3 The Importance of Revegetation at Ash Disposal Sites
22.4 Changes in the Physical and Chemical Properties of Fly Ash During Weathering and Revegetation—Indicators of Early Paedogenesis
22.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
23 Impact of Flood Disaster on Agricultural Land and Crop Contamination at the Confluence of the Bosna River
Abstract
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Materials and Methods
23.2.1 Area Studied
23.2.2 Sampling of Soil, Flood Sediment and Plant Materials
23.2.3 Analytical Methods
23.3 Results
23.3.1 Soil and Flood Sediment
23.3.2 Plant Material Analyses
23.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
24 Poorly Soluble and Mobile Forms of Heavy Metals in the Soils of the Volga Steppes
Abstract
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Materials and Methods
24.3 Results and Discussion
24.3.1 Basic Soil Parameters
24.3.2 Zinc
24.3.3 Copper (Cu)
24.3.4 Lead (Pb)
24.3.5 Cadmium (Cd)
24.3.6 Nickel (Ni)
24.3.7 Arsenic (As)
24.3.8 Mercury (Hg)
24.3.9 Discussion
24.4 Conclusions
References
25 Impact of Tailing Outflow on Soil Quality Around the Former Stolice Mine (Serbia)
Abstract
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Materials and Methods
25.2.1 Area Studied
25.2.2 Sample Collection
25.2.3 Soil Analysis
25.2.4 Statistical and Mathematical Methods
25.3 Results and Discussion
25.3.1 Basic Properties of the Soils Studied
25.3.2 Microbiological Characteristics of the Soils Studied
25.3.3 Contents of Heavy Metals in the Soils Studied
25.3.4 Air Deposition of Pb and Cd in the Area Studied
25.3.5 Impact of Tailings on Contamination of Soil in the Flooded Area
25.3.5.1 Pollution Indices
25.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
26 Hazards and Usability of Coal Fly Ash
Abstract
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Physico-Chemical and Biological Properties of Fly Ash
26.2.1 Physical Properties of Fly Ash
26.2.2 Chemical Properties of Fly Ash
26.2.3 Heavy Metals in Fly Ash
26.3 Detrimental Influence of Fly Ash Dumping on the Environment
26.3.1 Direction and Distance of Fly Ash Scattering
26.3.2 Effects of Heavy Metals From Fly Ash Dumps on Surrounding Soils
26.3.3 Influence of Fly Ash on Rhizobial Bacteria and the Process of Symbiotic N2-fixation
26.3.3.1 Genetic Acquisition of Rhizobial Resistance
26.4 Bioremediation of Fly Ash Dumps
26.4.1 The Main Goal
26.4.2 Plants Used for Ash Dump Phytoremediation
26.4.3 Cost-effectiveness of Fly Ash Dump Bioremediation
26.4.4 Symbiotic N2 Fixation in Bioremediation
26.4.5 Amendments for Efficient Establishment of Plants Suitable for Bioremediation of Ash Dumps
26.4.5.1 Mineral Fertiliser as an Amendment
26.4.5.2 Topsoil as an Amendment
26.4.5.3 Organic Amendments
26.4.5.4 Chemical Amendments
26.4.5.5 Nanotechnology and Heavy Metal Removal From Fly Ash
26.4.5.6 Microorganisms as Amendments in Phytoremediation and Bioremediation
26.5 Useful Traits of Fly Ash
26.5.1 Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture
26.5.2 Use of Fly Ash to Correct the Soil’s Biological Properties
26.5.3 Use of Fly Ash as a Raw Material for Construction and Industry
26.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
27 Crop Yield Limitation by Soil Organic Matter Decline: A Case Study from the US Pacific Northwest
Abstract
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Experimental Site and Treatments
27.3 Results and Discussion
27.3.1 Changes in Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen
27.3.2 Wheat Yield Trends
27.3.3 Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen Loss Affect Wheat Yield
27.3.4 Importance of Subsoil Fertility to Maintain Wheat Yield
27.4 Conclusion
References
28 Changes in the Composition and Dynamics of Soil Humus and Physical Properties in Dark Chestnut Soils of Trans-Volga Dry Steppes After 75 and 35 years of Irrigation Agriculture
Abstract
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Materials and Methods
28.2.1 Site Description
28.2.2 Laboratory Analyses
28.3 Results and Discussion
28.3.1 Changes in the Humus Content of a Dark Chestnut Soil Irrigated for 75 years (Yershov, Site no. 1)
28.3.1.1 Humus Content in Dark Chestnut Soil Irrigated for 75 years
28.3.1.2 Fractional Composition of Humus in Dark Chestnut Soil Irrigated for 75 years
28.3.1.3 Micro- and Macroaggregate Composition of Dark Chestnut Soils Irrigated for 75 years (Site no. 1)
28.3.1.4 Soil Structure of the Dark-Chestnut Soils Irrigated for 75 years (Yershov, Site no. 1)
28.3.2 A Retrospective Analysis of the Dynamics of Humus Content Changes in Dark Chestnut Soils Irrigated for a Period of 35 years, Site no. 2
28.4 Conclusions
References
29 Fertility Decline in Arable Chernozem and Chestnut Soils in Volga Steppes Versus Their Virgin Analogues
Abstract
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Materials and Methods
29.3 Results and Discussion
29.3.1 Soil Humus
29.3.2 Fractional Composition of Soil Organic Matter
29.3.3 Soil Nitrogen
29.3.4 Soil Phosphorus
29.3.5 Further Chemical Properties of Chernozem and Chestnut Soils
29.4 Outlook
29.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
30 Labile Soil Carbon as an Indicator of Soil Organic Matter Quality in the Province of Vojvodina, Serbia
Abstract
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Soil Management and Carbon Pools
30.2.1 The Effects of Land Use on Soil Organic Carbon Changes
30.2.1.1 Total Organic Carbon
30.2.1.2 Labile Fraction of Soil Organic Matter
30.2.1.3 Hot-Water-Extractable Soil Organic Carbon
30.2.1.4 Mineral-Associated and Particulate Organic Carbon
30.3 Particulate and Mineral-Associated Organic Carbon with Different Soil Types and Land Uses
30.4 Conclusions
References
31 Changes in Key Physical Soil Properties of Post-pyrogenic Forest Ecosystems: a Case Study of Catastrophic Fires in Russian Sub-boreal Forest
Abstract
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Materials and Methods
31.2.1 Site Description
31.2.2 Field and Laboratory Analyses
31.3 Results and Discussion
31.3.1 Particle Size Distribution
31.3.2 Soil Moisture
31.3.3 Contact Angle of Soil Wetting and Specific Surface Area of Solid Phase
31.3.4 Electro-Physical Profiling
31.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
32 Remote Sensing Sensors and Recent Techniques in Desertification and Land Degradation Mapping––A Review
Abstract
32.1 Introduction
32.1.1 Landsat Sensors
32.1.2 MODIS
32.1.3 AVHRR
32.1.4 IKONOS
32.1.5 SPOT
32.1.6 Resourcesat (AWIFS, IRS LISS IV, LISS III)
32.1.7 Image Pre-processing
32.1.8 Image Classification
32.1.9 Traditional Methods
32.2 Recent Techniques
32.2.1 Hyperspectral Imaging
32.3 Desertification/land Degradation Vulnerability Analysis—Case Studies
32.4 Research Gaps and Future Prospects
32.5 Conclusion
References
33 Mapping the Caspian Sea’s North Coast Soils: Transformation and Degradation
Abstract
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Mapping Region and Soil Survey
33.3 Effect of Soil Drying on Soil Organic Matter and Salt Distribution
33.4 Soil Cover on the Northern Coast of the Caspian Sea
33.4.1 Formation of Soil Cover and Systematic Soil Classes Identified
33.4.2 The Soil Cover Map
33.5 Soil Degradation Mapping
33.5.1 Anthropogenic Transformation
33.5.2 The Soil Degradation Map
33.6 Conclusions
References
34 Soil Acidification Patterns Due to Long-Term Sulphur and Nitrogen Deposition and How They Affect Changes in Vegetation Composition in Eastern Serbia
Abstract
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Study Area
34.2.1 Parent Material Weathering—lithological Composition
34.2.2 Soil Types
34.2.3 Vegetation
34.3 Methods
34.4 Materials
34.4.1 Air Pollution Data
34.4.2 Climate Data
34.4.3 Soil and Vegetation Data
34.5 Results
34.5.1 Parent Material Weathering Rates
34.5.2 Soil Properties
34.5.3 Acid Deposition Trend and Critical Loads Assessment
34.5.3.1 Sulphur, Nitrogen and Base Cation Deposition Trends
34.5.3.2 Critical Loads for Sulphur and Nitrogen Deposition: Forests and Highland Grasslands
34.5.3.3 Critical Loads for Biodiversity and Habitat Suitability Change
34.5.3.4 Combined Effect of Acid Deposition and Climate Change on Habitat Suitability of Beech Forest and Highland Grassland
34.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
35 Urban Soils in the Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg (Russia)
Abstract
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Area Studied
35.3 Soil Diagnostics
35.4 Analytical Methods
35.5 Soils of the Sheremetev Gardens
35.5.1 Anthropogenic Soil Formation Factors
35.5.2 Soil Description and Properties
35.6 Soils of the Polish Gardens
35.6.1 Anthropogenic Soil Formation Factors
35.6.2 Soil Description and Properties
35.7 Discussion
35.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
36 Agrosoils in the City of St. Petersburg: Anthropogenic Evolution and Current State
Abstract
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Site Description
36.3 Field Analyses
36.3.1 Soil Morphological Characteristics
36.3.2 Mesomorphological Analysis of the Soils Studied
36.3.3 Vertical Electrical Resistivity Sounding (VERS) of the Studied Soils
36.4 Laboratory Analyses
36.4.1 Agrochemical Characteristics of Studied Soils
36.4.2 Concentrations of Petroleum Products (PPs) and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Soil Studied
36.4.3 Heavy Metal (HM) Concentration in the Studied Soils and Total Contamination Index of Soil Pollution (Zc)
36.5 Perspectives for the Restoration and Use of Fallow Land
36.5.1 Sample Technologies Proposed for Restoration of Fallow Land in Northwestern Russia
36.5.1.3 Option III (For Spring Crops)
36.5.1.4 Option IV (For Spring Crops)
36.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References