Advances in Rechargeable Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1 Principles and Challenges of Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Operating Principles and Challenges of the Li–S Redox Couple
1.3 Enabling Li–S Batteries: The Collective Scientific and Engineering Effort
1.3.1 Cathode
1.3.2 Anode
1.3.3 Electrolyte
1.4 Conclusion: The Next Decade of Li–S Battery Research
References
2 Sulfur–Carbon Composite Cathodes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fundamentals of the Role of Carbon Materials in Sulfur Redox Reactions
2.3 Synthetic Methods of Sulfur–Carbon Composites
2.3.1 Melt-Diffusion
2.3.2 Vapor Phase Infusion
2.3.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation
2.4 Sulfur-Porous Carbon Composite Cathode
2.4.1 Microporous Carbon
2.4.2 Meso/Macroporous Carbon
2.4.3 Hierarchical Porous Carbon
2.4.4 Hollow Porous Carbon
2.5 Sulfur–Graphene Composite Cathode
2.5.1 Conductive Graphene
2.5.2 Chemically Modified Graphene
2.5.3 Porous Graphene
2.6 Sulfur–Carbon Nanotube Composite Cathode
2.6.1 Sulfur-Coated Carbon Nanotubes
2.6.2 Sulfur-Encapsulating Carbon Nanotubes
2.6.3 Tube-in-Tube Structure
2.6.4 Hierarchical CNT Network Structure
2.7 Sulfur–Carbon Fiber Composite Cathode
2.8 Sulfur-Functionalized Carbon Composite Cathode
2.8.1 Polymer Decoration
2.8.2 Heteroatom Doping
2.8.3 Functional Group Grafting
2.9 Sulfur-Hybrid Carbon Composite Cathode
2.10 Flexible Sulfur–Carbon Composite Cathodes
2.11 Summary
References
3 Li2S Cathodes in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Activation Mechanism of Li2S
3.3 Electrochemical Activation of Li2S
3.3.1 Structural Engineering of Li2S
3.3.2 Cathode Electrocatalysts
3.3.3 Redox Mediators
3.3.4 Electrolyte Additives
3.4 Full Cells Based on Li2S Cathodes
3.4.1 Anode Materials for Li2S Full Cells
3.4.2 Lithium Loss in Li2S Full Cells
3.4.3 Electrolytes for Li2S Full Cells
3.5 Summary and Outlooks
References
4 Physical and Chemical Adsorption of Polysulfides
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Basic Principles of Sulfur Cathode
4.1.2 Reaction Products of Sulfur Cathode
4.1.3 The Origin and Consequence of Shuttling Effect
4.2 How to Characterize the Shuttling Effect of Polysulfides?
4.2.1 In Situ Method
4.2.2 Ex Situ Method
4.3 Physical Confinement of Polysulfides Within Cathode
4.3.1 Carbon Materials for Physical Confinement
4.3.2 Polymer Membranes for Physical Confinement
4.3.3 Summary
4.4 Chemical Confinement of Polysulfides Within Sulfur Cathode
4.4.1 Polar–Polar Interactions
4.4.2 Lewis Acid–Base Interactions
4.4.3 Redox Interactions
4.4.4 Summary
4.5 Interlayer
4.5.1 Representative Configurations of Interlayer
4.5.2 Perspective of the Application of Interlayer Within Li–S Batteries
4.6 Outlooks
References
5 Catalytic Conversion of Polysulfides in Li–S Batteries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Polysulfides in Li–S Battery
5.2.1 Redox Chemistry
5.2.2 Shuttling Phenomenon
5.2.3 Remedies for Shuttling of LiPSs
5.2.4 Introduction of Catalysis in Li–S Battery
5.3 Catalytic Materials
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Metal-Based Catalysts
5.3.3 Metal-Free Catalysts
5.4 Catalysis Mechanism
5.4.1 Bottlenecks of Catalysis in Li–S Batteries
5.4.2 Parameters of Catalytic Activity
5.4.3 Exploration of Catalytic Mechanism
5.5 Characterizations
5.5.1 Electrochemical Techniques
5.5.2 Microscopic Techniques
5.5.3 Optical Techniques
5.5.4 In-Situ Characterization Techniques
5.6 Summary and Perspective
References
6 Lithium Metal and Other Anodes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Challenges of Li Metal Anodes
6.2.1 General Issues of Li Metal Anodes
6.2.2 Specific Challenges of Li Metal Anodes in Li–S Batteries
6.3 Advances of Li Metal Anodes in Li–S Batteries
6.3.1 Inhibition of the Dissolution of LiPSs
6.3.2 Optimization of SEI
6.3.3 Reinforcement of Bulk Li Metal and Other Anodes
6.4 Conclusions and Outlook
References
7 Organosulfide Cathodes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Linear Organosulfides
7.2.1 Small Organosulfide Molecules
7.2.2 Organosulfide Polymers
7.3 Cyclic Organosulfides
7.4 Oranosulfides Containing N-heterocycles
7.5 Organosulfides Containing S–Se Bonds
7.5.1 Small Molecules
7.5.2 Polymers
7.6 Summary and Outlooks
References
8 Sulfur-Containing Polymer Cathode Materials for Li–S Batteries
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Electrochemical Mechanisms of Different Sulfur-Containing Polymer Cathode Materials
8.3 Sulfur-Containing Polymer Cathode Materials with Different Electrochemical Mechanisms in Li–S Batteries
8.3.1 Sulfur-Containing Polymers Based on Conventional Redox Chemistry
8.3.2 Sulfur-Containing Polymers with Solid-Phase Conversion
8.4 Optimization Strategies for Li–S Batteries Using Sulfur-Containing Polymer Cathode Materials
8.4.1 Adding Conductive Additives
8.4.2 Introducing Reaction Accelerators
8.4.3 Applying Quasi-solid-State or Solid-State Electrolytes
8.5 Summary and Outlook
References
9 Advanced Characterization Techniques and Mechanistic Understanding
9.1 Introduction
9.2 In Situ/Operando XRD
9.3 In Situ/Operando Morphological Characteristic Techniques
9.3.1 TEM
9.3.2 AFM
9.3.3 TXM
9.3.4 XRR
9.3.5 XRT
9.3.6 Other Morphological Characteristic Techniques
9.4 In Situ/Operando Detection and Tracking of Soluble Polysulfides
9.4.1 XAS
9.4.2 Raman
9.4.3 UV–Vis
9.4.4 NMR
9.4.5 HPLC
9.4.6 FT–IR
9.4.7 EPR
9.5 Summary and Outlook
References
10 Computation and Simulation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Gibbs Free Energy and Cell Potential
10.3 Computational Methods: Principles and Limitations
10.3.1 Introduction and Definitions
10.3.2 Ab Initio Computer Simulation Methods
10.3.3 From “Ab Initio” to Empirical Force Fields
10.3.4 Different Scales in Computer Simulations
10.3.5 Choose an Appropriate Simulation Method
10.4 Computational Studies of Sulfur-Based Battery Systems
10.4.1 Structures and Energetics
10.4.2 Mechanistic Studies
10.4.3 Predictive Studies
10.5 Summary and Outlook
References
Index