Advances in Legumes for Sustainable Intensification




Contributors
Acknowledgment
Chapter 1 - Legume-based agroecosystem for sustainable intensification: An overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Vertical intensification of legumes
1.3 Horizontal intensification of legumes
1.4 Improved human nutrition, health, and livelihood
1.5 Improved animal health
1.6 Improved human and animal’s dietary energy
1.7 Legumes for nitrogen and weed manager in cropping system
1.8 Breeding for enhancing yield potential of grain legumes
1.9 Protection of soil from erosion and degradation
1.10 Promoting soil properties and associated processes
1.11 Reduce ecological footprint and ensures climate-resilient agriculture
1.12 Improved ecosystem services sustainably
1.13 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Section I - Legumes for sustainable crop intensification
Chapter 2 - Scope for production of pulses in rice fallow lands in South Asia
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Global scenario and constraints of rice fallow management
2.2.1 Global scenario
2.2.2 Constraints in targeting rice fallow
2.2.2.1 Abiotic constraints
2.2.2.2 Biotic constraints
2.2.2.3 Socioeconomic constraints
2.2.2.4 Other production constraints in managing rice fallow
2.2.2.5 Soil moisture depletion and lack of irrigation
2.2.2.6 Shortage of quality seeds of pulses
2.2.2.7 Long duration rice varieties
2.2.2.8 Poor crop management
2.3 Strategies and innovative pathway for targeting rice fallow
2.3.1 Water harvesting and storage
2.3.2 Use of resource conservation technologies
2.3.3 A system model of crop production
2.3.4 Suitable crops and varieties
2.3.5 Seed priming and optimum seeding rate
2.3.6 Seed treatment and foliar plant nutrition
2.3.7 Pest and disease management
2.3.8 Weed management
2.3.9 Soil moisture retention and conservation
2.3.10 Crop establishment techniques
2.4 Geospatial technology targeting the rice fallow lands: A case study of Odisha
2.4.1 Identification and characterization of the potential rice fallow areas
2.4.2 Identifying rice fallows in Odisha for targeting water-efficient pulse crops
2.4.3 Rice fallow frequency in Odisha
2.4.4 Rice fallow characterization and management in Odisha
2.4.5 Spatial-temporal analysis of residual soil moisture availability windows for rabi crops
2.4.6 Mapping the associated abiotic stresses to precise technology targeting
2.4.7 Spatiotemporal characterization of flood inundation in coastal districts of Odisha
2.4.8 Extrapolation domain maps for site-specific crop suitability in rice fallow
2.5 Intensification and crop diversification of rice fallows through suitable site-specific varieties of pulse crops
2.5.1 Crop intensification
2.5.2 Crop diversification
2.5.3 Rice-based cropping systems and fallow management
2.6 Road map for scaling adoption and empowering farmers through value chain and addition
2.7 Incentive and policy framework development for managing rice fallow
2.8 Future perspectives
2.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 3 - Sustainable intensification in cropping systems through inclusion of legumes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Prospectus of legumes in world and India
3.3 Importance of legumes in agricultural intensification
3.3.1 Biological nitrogen fixation
3.3.2 Mitigating greenhouse gases emissions
3.3.3 Improving soil fertility through restoration of soil organic matter
3.4 Biophysical resource constraints and environmental degradation in existing cropping system
3.5 Sustainable intensification: An overview
3.6 Sustainable intensification indicators/indices/indexes
3.7 Need and opportunities for sustainable intensification in different agroecosystem
3.8 Legume-based sustainable intensification
3.8.1 Crop rotation
3.8.2 Intercropping and mixed cropping
3.8.3 Cover cropping
3.8.4 Green manuring
3.8.5 Relay cropping
3.8.6 Agroforestry
3.8.7 Legume-based pasture
3.9 Policies and incentives for supporting legume-based sustainable intensification
3.9.1 Policies and incentives in world
3.9.1.1 CGIAR research program on grain legumes
3.9.1.2 ICRISAT-led tropical legumes projects
3.9.2 Policies and incentives in India
3.9.2.1 Technology mission on pulses
3.9.2.2 National food security mission–pulses
3.9.2.3 Accelerated pulses production program
3.9.2.4 Targeting rice fallow areas
3.10 Research gap and ways to overcome
3.11 Future perspectives
3.12 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 4 - Legumes for efficient utilization of summer fallow
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Global fallow period—an overview
4.2.1 African countries
4.2.1.1 Maize–legume fallow
4.2.1.2 Rice–legume fallow
4.2.1.3 Sugarcane–legume fallow
4.2.2 Australia
4.2.3 China
4.2.3.1 Maize–legume fallow–wheat
4.2.3.2 Wheat–legume fallow–wheat
4.2.4 South Asia
4.2.5 Mediterranean region
4.2.6 North America
4.2.7 Latin America
4.3 Benefits of legumes as summer fallow crop
4.3.1 Soil moisture conservation
4.3.2 Nitrogen enrichment in the legume fallow cropping system
4.3.2.1 Soil nitrogen level
4.3.2.2 Nitrogen sparing in soil
4.3.2.3 Mixcropping and monocropping
4.3.2.4 Carryover nitrogen in legume fallow
4.3.2.5 Nitrate leaching losses
4.3.3 Improving crop yields
4.3.4 Improvement of soil physical properties and erosion control
4.3.4.1 Soil physical properties
4.3.4.2 Soil erosion control
4.4 Limitations of legume fallow
4.4.1 Nitrogen losses to the environment
4.4.1.1 Nitrate leaching losses
4.4.1.2 Nitrous oxide emission
4.4.2 Soil phosphorus depletion
4.4.3 Depleting organic matter in the soil
4.4.4 High water demand by legumes in summer
4.5 Future research needs in legumes for summer fallow
4.5.1 Nitrogen enrichment in soil
4.5.2 Nitrogen leaching losses
4.5.3 Nitrous oxide emission
4.5.4 Legume species selection and genetic improvement
4.5.5 Soil erosion control and physical properties
4.5.6 The requirement of long-term studies
4.6 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 5 - Efficient utilization of rice fallow through pulse cultivation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Overview of rice-based cropping systems
5.2.1 Global rice production and rice mega environments
5.2.1.1 Global rice production
5.2.1.2 Rice mega environment
5.2.2 Different rice-based production system
5.2.2.1 Mixed varietal cropping of rice
5.2.2.2 Intercropping rice with other crops
5.2.2.3 Rice under integrated farming system
5.2.2.4 Relay cropping
5.2.2.5 Sequential cropping in rice
5.3 Rice-fallow agroecosystem
5.3.1 Characteristics of rice-fallow agroecosystem
5.3.2 Concerns of rice fallows
5.3.3 Major issues and challenges of rice fallow
5.3.3.1 Biophysical problems
5.3.3.2 Production constraints
5.3.3.3 Socioeconomic concerns
5.4 Scope for pulses production in rice-fallow areas
5.5 Pulse cultivation in rice-fallow
5.5.1 Production systems in rice-fallows
5.5.2 Potential pulse crops and their varieties for rice-fallows
5.5.3 Agronomical intervention for improving pulse production
5.5.3.1 Seed priming and accurate time of sowing
5.5.3.2 System mode of crop production
5.5.3.3 Resource conservation technologies
5.5.3.4 Weed management strategies
5.5.4 Research and development
5.6 Pulses for sustainability of farms and economic benefits of farming communities in rice-fallow
5.6.1 Environmental benefits
5.6.2 Socioeconomic benefits
5.7 Case studies
5.7.1 Indian context
5.7.2 Sri Lankan context
5.8 Possible future policy and action plan for promoting pulses in rice-fallow
5.9 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 6 - Legumes for nutrient management in the cropping system
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ways to loss of excessive use of nitrogen in agricultural soils
6.2.1 Ammonia volatilization from surface soils
6.2.2 Nitrate leaching
6.2.3 Denitrification
6.2.4 Surface runoff of nitrogen
6.2.5 Immobilization of nitrogen by soil microbes
6.3 Multiple benefits of legumes for agricultural sustainability
6.3.1 Pulses in crop diversity
6.3.2 Role of crop cultivars for higher nitrogen use efficiency
6.3.3 Role of grain legumes in cropping systems
6.3.4 Grain legumes and conservation agriculture
6.3.5 Legumes serve as nitrogen factory in plants
6.4 Breeding, biotechnology, and genetic engineering for improving legumes-based nitrogen
6.4.1 Breeding
6.4.2 Biotechnology
6.4.3 Genetic engineering
6.5 Physiological mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation
6.6 Integrated management for enhancing nitrogen in soils
6.6.1 Agronomic management for increasing nitrogen use efficiency in legumes
6.6.2 Promotion of rhizobium strain in improving nitrogen fixation and yields in legumes
6.6.3 Conservation agriculture practices in legumes
6.7 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 7 - Residual nitrogen for succeeding crops in legume-based cropping system
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nitrogen dynamics in legume-based cropping systems
7.3 Atmospheric nitrogen fixation in legume-rhizobium system
7.4 Uptake of fixed atmospheric nitrogen by legume crops
7.5 Residual nitrogen from legume crops
7.6 Release kinetics of residual nitrogen
7.7 Fate of residual nitrogen in soil
7.8 Effect of legumes on residual nitrogen
7.9 Forms of residual nitrogen affecting uptake by succeeding crops in legumes-based cropping systems
7.10 Succeeding crops in the legume-based cropping system
7.11 Legume-based cropping system for reducing environmental footprint
7.12 Residual form of fixed atmospheric nitrogen in soil
7.13 Legumes-based cropping systems for sustainability of agroecosystems
7.14 Residual nitrogen balance, economic efficiency, and system productivity analysis in legume-based cropping systems
7.15 Nutrient recovery, availability, and use efficiency of residual nitrogen by succeeding crops
7.16 Effect of residual nitrogen on water availability, weed suspension, and soil health in succeeding crops
7.17 Effect of legumes-based cropping system on soil carbon stabilization in succeeding crops
7.18 Evaluation of the benefit of legume residual nitrogen to succeeding crops
7.19 Future perspectives
7.20 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 8 - Legumes for eco-friendly weed management in agroecosystem
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Consequences of weeds in crop production system
8.2.1 Crop growth
8.2.2 Crop yield
8.2.3 Quality
8.2.4 Nutrient status of soil
8.2.5 Weed act as an alternate host for insect pest and diseases
8.3 Adverse effect of excessive use of herbicides on food and environmental security
8.3.1 Human health
8.3.2 Environment
8.3.3 Aquatic ecosystem
8.3.4 Soil microbial community
8.4 Potential legume species for weed control in cropping systems
8.5 Role of legume as a mean of weed suppression in cropping systems
8.5.1 Weed suppression through crop rotation system
8.5.2 Weed suppression through intercropping system
8.5.3 Weed suppression through cover crops
8.5.4 Weed suppression through green and brown manuring
8.5.4.1 Weed suppression through green manuring
8.5.4.2 Weed suppression through brown manuring
8.5.5 Weed suppression through residue incorporation and retention
8.6 Allelopathic potential of legumes for weed control in cropping systems
8.7 Assessment of the competitive ability of legumes to weeds in intercropping and sequential cropping
8.8 Economic analysis of legumes effect on weeds
8.9 Challenges for using legume as weed suppression
8.10 Possible future policy and action plan
8.11 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Abbreviations
References
Section II - Human and animal Health
Chapter 9 - Grain legumes: A diversified diet for sustainable livelihood, food, and nutritional security
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Malnutrition: an overview
9.2.1 Types and classification of malnutrition
9.2.1.1 Undernutrition
9.2.1.2 Overnutrition
9.2.1.3 Micronutrient deficiency
9.2.2 Indicators of malnutrition
9.2.2.1 Anthropometry
9.2.2.2 Clinical indicators
9.2.2.3 Biochemical indicators
9.2.3 Aetiology
9.2.4 Recommended dietary allowance for children in India
9.2.5 Nutritional deficiency disorders
9.2.5.1 Vitamin A deficiency
9.2.5.2 Iron deficiency
9.2.5.3 Iodine deficiency
9.2.5.4 Zinc deficiency
9.2.6 Factors affecting malnutrition
9.2.6.1 Environmental factors
9.2.6.2 Socio-demographic factors
9.2.7 Importance of legumes in human wellbeing
9.3 Remedies for elevating malnutrition through grain legumes
9.3.1 Nutritional profile of grain legumes
9.3.2 Antinutritional factors
9.3.3 Processing and value addition
9.3.4 Biofortification
9.3.5 Dietary modification and nutrient enhancement
9.3.6 Food and nutritional security
9.3.7 Promotion of sustainable consumption
9.3.8 Use of legumes as a functional food
9.4 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 10 - Recent strategies for pulse biofortification to combat malnutrition
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Pulses biofortification and current need to replace the malnutrition
10.3 Nutrient value of different pulses
10.4 Bioavailability of nutrients in pulses
10.4.1 Factors affecting bioavailability of the nutrients
10.4.1.1 Enhancer
10.4.1.2 Inhibitors
10.4.2 Bioavailability of iron from pulses
10.4.3 Bioavailability of zinc in pulses
10.5 Need of pulses biofortification
10.6 Current status and achievements in pulses biofortification
10.7 Methodologies of biofortification
10.7.1 Breeding approaches
10.7.1.1 Breeding tools to develop biofortified pulses
10.7.1.1.1 Conventional breeding
10.7.1.1.2 Molecular breeding
10.7.1.1.3 Mutational breeding
10.7.1.2 Genetic modification
10.7.2 Agronomic biofortification
10.7.2.1 Iron and zinc fertilization
10.7.2.2 Selenium fertilization
10.7.2.3 Iodine fertilization
10.7.3 Microbial approaches for nutrient mineralization and their uptake enhancement
10.8 Challenges in pulses biofortification
10.9 Future perspectives
10.10 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 11 - Forage legumes for human, animals, and environment
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Characteristic of forage legumes
11.3 Main forage legumes species and worldwide distribution
11.4 Methods of cultivation (sole or mixture cropping)
11.5 Methods of biomass utilization and conservation
11.6 Quality of forage for animals feeding
11.7 Forage legumes for horticulture production
11.8 Forage legumes for marginal land and soil protection
11.9 Forage legumes for human
11.9.1 Lucerne
11.9.2 Red clover
11.9.3 White clover
11.9.4 Fenugreek
11.9.5 Mongolian milk vetch
11.9.6 Yellow sweet clover
11.9.7 Goat’s rue
11.9.8 Lespedeza
11.9.9 Sainfoin
11.10 Forage legumes for environmental protection
11.11 Future perspectives and research issues of forage legumes
11.12 Case study
11.13 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 12 - Legumes for animal nutrition and dietary energy
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Forage legumes hay and silage preservation
12.3 Nutritional value of forage legumes and implications for animal production
12.3.1 Water
12.3.2 Protein
12.3.3 Carbohydrates and fats
12.3.4 Minerals and vitamins
12.4 Forage legumes nutrient digestibility and partitioning in ruminants
12.5 Secondary compounds in forage legumes: taking advantage
12.6 Animal production
12.7 Novel grazing system of forage legume utilization
12.8 Future perspectives
12.9 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Section III - Soil health management
Chapter 13 - Legumes protect the soil erosion and ecosystem services
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Soil processes, erosion, and conservation
13.2.1 Economic significance of soil erosion in crop production
13.2.2 Extent and distribution of soil erosion
13.3 Legumes to control soil erosion in systems
13.3.1 Legume cover cropping
13.3.2 Legumes in mixed–and–intercropping
13.3.3 Legumes green manuring
13.3.4 Legume-based agroforestry system
13.3.5 Legume-based alley cropping
13.3.6 Legumes in grasslands and pasture
13.3.7 Legumes in fallow land
13.4 Perennial legume shrubs, bushes, and hedgerows for soil and water conservation
13.5 Potential of legumes in bench terracing in hilly region to control erosion
13.6 Conclusions and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 14 - Sustainable management of land degradation through legume-based cropping system
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Global issues affecting food security: threats to soil, water, and biodiversity
14.3 Extent and distribution of degraded soils globally
14.4 Land degradation’s current and expected effects on food security
14.5 Opportunities for ensuring global food security through management of degraded land
14.6 Problem, severity, and future possibilities of land degradation in existing cropping systems without inclusion of legumes
14.7 How legumes could pay for sustainable management of unutilized degraded lands
14.8 Economic analyses of land improvement through legumes in cropping system
14.9 Possibilities and barriers of improvement of degraded lands through legumes
14.10 Possible future policy and action plan
14.11 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 15 - Legumes effect on nitrogen mineralization and microbial biomass potential in organic farming
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Legumes in organic farming: Theory and practices
15.3 Principles of organic farming and role of legumes in fulfilling them
15.4 Legumes effects on nitrogen pool
15.5 Nitrogen mineralization and its significance in crop production
15.6 Chemistry of nitrogen mineralization
15.7 Linkage among legumes, nitrogen mineralization, and soil microbial biomass
15.8 Legume’s effect on nitrogen mineralization
15.8.1 Legumes-based cropping system affects nitrogen mineralization
15.8.2 Chemical composition of legumes residues determining mineralization rate
15.8.3 Soil physics affecting legume nitrogen mineralization
15.8.4 Soil chemistry properties affecting legume nitrogen mineralization
15.8.5 Soil biology properties affecting legume nitrogen mineralization
15.9 Effect of legumes on soil microbial diversity
15.9.1 Factor affecting the impact of legumes on soil microbial diversity
15.9.2 Impact of legumes on root colonizing microbes
15.9.3 Impact of legumes on growth-promoting microbes
15.9.4 Impact of legumes on algae
15.10 Effect of legumes on soil biochemical reactions
15.10.1 Nitrogen fixation
15.10.2 Nitrification, denitrification, ammonification, and elemental oxidation
15.11 Effect of legumes on soil enzymes
15.11.1 Nitrogenase enzyme
15.11.2 Dehydrogenase enzyme
15.11.3 Urease and phosphatase enzymes
15.11.4 Cellulase, β-glucosidase, invertase, and other enzymes
15.12 Possible future policy and action plan
15.13 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 16 - Legume-based inter-cropping to achieve the crop, soil, and environmental health security
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Legume based inter-cropping and ecosystem services
16.3 Legumes as inter-crops
16.3.1 Vegetable
16.3.2 Cereals
16.3.3 Legumes
16.3.4 Oilseed crops
16.3.5 Others
16.4 Legumes inter-cropping and soil health
16.4.1 Soil physical
16.4.2 Soil chemicals
16.4.3 Soil microbes
16.5 Legumes inter-cropping and plant health
16.6 Legume inter-cropping for insect-disease and pest management of component crops
16.7 Constraints and challenges for legumes in inter-cropping system
16.8 Promotional opportunities for legumes in inter-cropping system
16.9 Possible future policy and action plan
16.10 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 17 - Soil carbon and legumes
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Soil carbon pools and carbon mineralization
17.3 Issues of declining soil carbon under intensive cropping system
17.4 Role of legumes in nutrient stoichiometry
17.5 Role of legumes in carbon stoichiometry
17.6 Potential of legumes for soil carbon sequestration
17.7 Screening of legumes species for increased carbon sequestration
17.8 Role of leguminous root biomass in sequestering carbon
17.9 Legumes for soil carbon sequestration
17.9.1 Total carbon
17.9.2 Organic carbon/labile carbon
17.9.3 Inorganic carbon
17.9.4 Microbial biomass carbon
17.9.5 Particulate organic carbon
17.10 Legumes in cropping systems
17.10.1 Sequential cropping
17.10.2 Mixed and intercropping
17.10.3 Agroforestry system
17.10.4 Grasslands and hedgerows
17.11 Limitations, advantages and opportunities in soil carbon sequestration through legumes
17.12 Future perspectives
17.13 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 18 - Role of legumes in phytoremediation of heavy metals
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Heavy metal pollutants: Soil contamination and human health
18.3 Heavy metal stress for legumes and associated biological processes
18.4 Physiological aspects of legumes under heavy metal stress
18.5 Microbially mediated heavy metal transformations in the rhizosphere
18.6 Role of legumes in phytoremediation of heavy metal polluted soils
18.7 Heavy metal, soil, and plant interaction
18.8 Strengthening legume associated-rhizobia to improve heavy-metal phytoremediation
18.9 Genomic manipulation for improving legume phytoremediation
18.10 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi – legume association in managing heavy metals contaminated soils
18.11 Role of plant growth promoting rhizobia in managing heavy metals contaminated soils
18.12 Legume-rhizobium association to manage heavy metals contaminated soils
18.13 Conclusion and future perspectives
Abbreviations
References
Section IV - Agroecosystems Management
Chapter 19 - Legumes for agroecosystem services and sustainability
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Agroecosystem services
19.3 Diversification of production system to maximize agroecosystem services
19.4 Ecosystem services provided by legumes
19.4.1 Protection of soil, water, and fossil resources
19.4.2 Nutrient, carbon, energy, and hydrological balance
19.4.3 Enhanced biodiversity at farmland level
19.4.4 Reduce greenhouse gases emissions
19.4.4.1 Carbon dioxide
19.4.4.2 Nitrous oxide
19.4.4.3 Other greenhouse gases
19.4.5 Healthy, nutritious and sustainable food
19.4.5.1 Legumes as a source of proteins
19.4.5.2 Legumes as a source of micronutrients
19.4.5.3 Legumes as health porter
19.4.5.4 Applications of legumes in food sustainability
19.4.6 Advantages of legume-based healthy diets
19.5 Legume contribution to sustainable agriculture
19.6 Challenges in maximizing benefits from agroecosystem services
19.7 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 20 - Potential of legume-based cropping systems for climate change adaptation and mitigation
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Climate change and its impacts: present status and future projection
20.3 Climate change adaptation and mitigation
20.4 Legumes: a vital component of climate-smart cropping system
20.4.1 Field crop system
20.4.2 Agroforestry system
20.4.3 Grassland system
20.4.4 Legume silvopastoral system
20.5 Role of legume crops in climate change adaptation in system-based approach
20.5.1 Legumes in cropping systems
20.5.2 Variety selection under climate change
20.5.3 Drought management
20.5.4 Soil management
20.6 Role of legumes in climate change mitigation in system-based approach
20.6.1 Legumes reduce external nitrogen fertilizer use
20.6.2 Legumes reduce water use and associated energy
20.6.3 Legumes require less demand of tillage and other machineries
20.6.4 Legumes for better carbon sequestration in soil
20.7 Ways to remove barriers in the way of inclusion of legumes in cropping system
20.8 Research priorities and resource development of climate-smart legume-based system
20.9 Possible future policy and action plan
20.10 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 21 - Legumes to reduce ecological footprints for climate-smart cropping systems
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Ecological footprint
21.2.1 Scope, significance, and purpose
21.2.2 Ecological footprint formula
21.2.3 Yield factor and equivalence factor
21.2.4 Other methods of ecological footprint calculation
21.3 Legumes as climate-smart crop
21.4 Greenhouse gases emission reduction potential of legumes in cropping system
21.4.1 Carbon dioxide emissions
21.4.2 Nitrous oxide emissions
21.4.3 Legumes relation with agroecosystems and various footprints
21.4.3.1 Energy footprint calculation
21.4.3.2 Carbon footprint calculation
21.4.3.3 Water footprint calculation
21.5 Role of legumes in ecological footprint reduction in cropping system
21.5.1 Reduced chemical fertilizer requirement
21.5.2 Less water requirement
21.5.3 Carbon sequestration
21.5.4 Ecological weed management
21.5.5 Prevention of soil erosion
21.5.6 Reduced labor and energy requirement
21.6 Best crop management practices and their footprint reduction potential in legume-based cropping system
21.6.1 Conservation tillage practices
21.6.2 Crop diversification
21.6.3 Diversified nutrient sources
21.6.4 Water management
21.7 Future policy and action Plan
21.8 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 22 - Environmental footprints of legumes-based agroecosystems for sustainable development
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Trends and current scenario of global greenhouse gases emission in agroecosystems
22.2.1 Global greenhouse gas emissions: Current scenario
22.2.2 Global greenhouse gases emission: Trends
22.3 Environmental footprint and its assessment
22.3.1 Footprint: Definition
22.3.2 Environmental footprint
22.3.3 Carbon footprint
22.3.4 Nitrogen footprint
22.3.5 Water footprint
22.3.6 Energy footprint
22.3.7 Land footprint
22.4 Environmental footprint in legume-based agroecosystem
22.4.1 Carbon footprint
22.4.2 Nitrogen footprint
22.4.3 Water footprint
22.4.4 Energy footprint
22.4.5 Land footprint
22.5 Best crop management practices and their environmental footprint reduction in legume-based agroecosystem
22.5.1 Replace the use of synthetic fertilizers with integrated and unified approach of legume-based agroecosystem
22.5.2 Comparing conventional tillage with no tillage practices in legume-based agroecosystem
22.5.3 Crop spatial arrangement in legume-based agroecosystem
22.6 Possible future policy and action plan
22.6.1 Future possible policy
22.6.1.1 Objectives: Climate mitigation and sustainable development
22.6.1.2 Future competitiveness of legume-based agroecosystems
22.6.2 Action plan
22.6.2.1 Need for harmonization within environmental footprints
22.6.2.2 Assessing and redesigning of legume-based agroecosystems by research community and producers
22.7 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 23 - Legumes for energy efficiency in agricultural systems
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Energy consumption and its consequences in agricultural systems: An overview
23.2.1 Energy consumption in the food production system
23.2.2 Renewable energy sources in agriculture
23.2.3 Consequences of higher energy consumption in agricultural systems
23.3 Leguminous and nonleguminous energy crops
23.4 Energy consumption patterns in legume-based agricultural systems
23.5 Energy saving potentials of legumes
23.5.1 Energy conservation through legume intercropping and rotational cropping
23.5.2 Energy saving through reduced nutrient demands and related transportation, and fertilizer production
23.5.2.1 Role of legumes as an alternative for synthetic chemical fertilizer
23.5.3 Energy saving through lesser water demands and related water pumping and electricity consumption
23.5.3.1 Use of cover crops and mulch to conserve the energy consumption for irrigation
23.5.3.2 Conservation agriculture with crop rotations to conserve the energy consumption for irrigation
23.5.4 Energy saving through ease harvesting and very less agronomic/intercultural practices
23.5.5 Energy saving through legumes’ capacity of weed suppression and thus reduced demands for herbicides
23.5.6 Energy saving through reduced land manipulation/tillage requirement and associated fuel consumption
23.6 Ways to further improve the energy consumption efficiency in legumes
23.6.1 Effective use of microbial inoculum to enhance the biological nitrogen fixation of legumes
23.6.2 Efficient management of soil moisture content
23.6.3 Conservation agriculture for legume cultivation
23.6.4 Selection of efficient legume variety for particular agro-ecological conditions
23.6.5 Application of precision agriculture for legume cultivation
23.6.6 Controlled traffic farming
23.7 Possible future policy and action plan
23.8 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 24 - Potential of tree legumes in agroforestry systems and soil conservation
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Legume’s description
24.3 Soil degradation and soil productivity
24.4 Agroforestry as an exploitation practical option
24.5 Tree legumes for sustainable intensification of agricultural production
24.6 Potential of tree legumes in agroforestry systems
24.6.1 Enhancing stabilization and sequestration of terrestrial carbon
24.6.2 Acceleration of nutrient cycling, pumping, and availability of associated crops
24.6.3 Improvement of soil physical properties
24.6.4 Improvement of the microclimate of component crops
24.6.5 Soil erosion prevention and sand dunes stabilization
24.6.6 Water conservation via greater infiltration and reduced surface runoff
24.6.7 Biodrainage
24.6.8 Providing nutritious feed and fodder to animals
24.6.9 Sources of fuelwood, timber, and energy in rural areas
24.6.10 Increase of water availability to component crops
24.7 Efficient use of degraded lands through legume trees in agroforestry system and nitrogen fixation measurement techniques
24.8 Improving the symbiotic properties of the nitrogen-fixing trees
24.9 Possible future policy and action plan
24.10 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 25 - Leguminous trees for sustainable tropical agroforestry
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Tropical agroforestry for clean environment
25.3 Legume trees for carbon sequestration for a long time
25.4 Legume trees for nitrogen sequestration for a long time
25.5 Leguminous trees and the soil sustainability
25.5.1 Leguminous trees’ role soil health restoration in tropical environments
25.5.2 Rhizobial and mycorrhizal associations for leguminous trees in tropical systems
25.5.2.1 Coassociation of microorganisms
25.5.2.1.1 Arbuscular mycorrhiza + rhizobia
25.5.2.1.2 Other associations
25.5.2.2 Restoration, reforestation, and bioremediation with nitrogen-fixing microorganisms
25.6 Leguminous trees and drought tolerance
25.7 Leguminous trees for ecosystem services
25.8 Multipurpose legume trees and integration in tropical and subtropical agroforestry systems
25.8.1 Leguminous trees for alley cropping
25.8.2 Improved fallows
25.8.3 Perennial woody crops under shade of leguminous trees
25.8.4 Boundary trees
25.8.5 Leguminous trees for home-gardens
25.8.6 Leguminous trees for fodder and pasture improvement
25.9 Conclusions and future perspectives
Abbreviations
References
Section V - Crop Improvement
Chapter 26 - Grain legumes: Recent advances and technological interventions
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Legume’s genetic architecture modification techniques
26.2.1 Next-generation genotyping and sequencing technologies in legume
26.2.2 Genomic breeding tools in grain legumes
26.2.3 Genetic resources and mapping of leguminous traits
26.2.3.1 Germplasm diversity and breeding strategies for improving tolerance
26.2.3.2 Molecular tagging for biotic and abiotic stresses
26.2.3.3 Genomics repertoire for abiotic/biotic stresses
26.2.4 Accelerating improvement of stress tolerance in legumes through marker-assisted selection and genomic selection
26.2.5 Genome-editing in legumes
26.3 Precision phenotyping tools in legumes
26.4 Legume biofortification
26.5 Nanotechnology in legume
26.6 Speed breeding in legumes
26.7 Digitalization of breeding records in legumes
26.8 Recently developed agro-technologies
26.8.1 Refined highly remunerative legume-based cropping system
26.8.2 Efficient and profitable intercropping with legumes
26.8.3 Promotion of conservation agriculture and resource conservation technologies
26.8.4 Zero till drill and residue retention in legumes
26.8.5 Micro-irrigation and fertigation
26.8.6 Use of customized fertilizers
26.8.7 Broad-spectrum weed control
26.8.8 Package technologies for legumes in rice fallow areas
26.9 Possibly future interventions and action plans
26.10 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 27 - Current trends in genetic enhancement of legumes in the genomics era for a sustainable future
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Genetic enhancement of legume crops
27.3 Neglected and underutilized legume crops
27.4 Genetic improvement of neglected and underutilized legumes
27.5 Legume trait mapping for genetic enhancements
27.5.1 Sequencing-based trait mapping
27.5.2 Multiparent/advanced mapping populations for high-resolution mapping
27.5.3 Advanced intercrossed lines
27.5.4 Nested association mapping
27.5.5 Trait mapping for specific epigenetic factors
27.6 Different tools/methodologies for genetic enhancements
27.6.1 High-throughput precision phenotyping
27.6.2 Molecular breeding
27.6.3 Molecular dissection of qualitative traits
27.6.4 Omics tools for genetic enhancement in legumes
27.6.5 Genome editing tools
27.7 Resequencing efforts for genetic information gain
27.8 Accelerated legumes domestication
27.9 Legume germplasm stocks as genetic sources of stress tolerance traits
27.10 Role of prebreeding and fast-breeding in genetic enhancement
27.11 Future perspectives and conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 28 - Conventional, genomics, and post-genomics era of pulses breeding: Current status and future prospects
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Major constraints in pulses production and productivity
28.3 Genetic resources for pulses improvement
28.3.1 Development of pan-genome in pulses
28.4 Conventional breeding for pulses improvement
28.5 Shortfalls of conventional breeding in pulses
28.6 Genomics era in pulses
28.6.1 Genomics for accelerated pulses breeding programme
28.6.2 Current status and role of genomics touplift pulses production
28.6.3 Novel breeding methodologies in amalgamation of genomics tools
28.6.3.1 Novel trait mapping approaches
28.6.3.2 Genomics-assisted breeding
28.6.3.3 Genome editing tools for pulses improvement
28.6.3.4 Breeding by design
28.7 Phenomics- high-throughput phenotyping
28.7.1 High-throughput phenotyping in controlled environmental conditions
28.7.2 High-throughput phenotyping in field conditions
28.7.2.1 Ground-based fixed (on tower) FBHPs
28.7.2.2 Ground-based mobile FBHPs
28.7.2.3 Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) based FBHPs
28.8 Paradigm shift to post gnomic tools in pulses breeding
28.9 Beyond genomics: Employment of post-genomic approaches in pulses breeding
28.10 Future perspectives
28.11 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 29 - Participatory breeding for improving legume landraces in small-scale farming
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Principles and concepts of participatory breeding in legume crops
29.3 Importance of participatory breeding under current global context
29.3.1 Benefits of participatory breeding on legume-based food and nutrition systems
29.3.2 Impact of participatory breeding on legumes diversity
29.3.3 Legume landraces maintained and preserved through participatory breeding
29.4 Methods of participatory breeding and participatory variety selection in legume crops
29.5 Variety release and maintenance
29.6 Seed production under community seed banks scheme
29.7 Successful participatory breeding experiences on legume crops
29.8 Future perspectives
29.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Competing interests
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 30 - Prospects for genome-wide selection for quantitative traits in legumes
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Genomic selection and breeding programs
30.3 Population design for genomic selection
30.4 Genomic selection and prediction models
30.4.1 Methods for prediction of additive genetic effects
30.4.1.1 Genomic best linear unbiased prediction
30.4.1.2 Single-step genomic best linear unbiased prediction
30.4.1.3 Ridge regression–best linear unbiased prediction
30.4.1.4 Bayesian methods
30.4.1.4.1 Bayes A
30.4.1.4.2 Bayes B
30.4.1.4.3 Bayes C and Cπ
30.4.1.5 Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator and Bayesian least absolute shrinkage and selection operator
30.4.1.6 Reproducing kernel Hilbert space
30.4.1.7 Support vector machine
30.4.2 Prediction of nonadditive genetic effects
30.4.3 Multiple traits and their prediction methods
30.5 Genomic selection and quantitative traits
30.6 Efforts and effectiveness of genomic selection in legumes
30.6.1 Soybean
30.6.2 Alfalfa
30.6.3 Chickpea
30.6.4 Pea
30.6.5 Groundnut
30.6.6 Common bean
30.7 Genomic selection and speed breeding—speed genomic selection
30.8 Future directions of genomic selection in legume
30.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Section VI - Economic importance
Chapter 31 - Effect of legumes on nitrogen economy and budgeting in South Asia
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Nitrogen budgeting of South Asia
31.3 Legume’s nitrogen fixation in South Asia
31.4 Legumes for reducing nitrogen budget
31.5 Nitrogen fixation and calculation in South Asia
31.6 Nitrogen effects on soil, water, and environment
31.7 Legume’s role to manage soil and environmental quality
31.8 Increase nitrogen use efficiency to manage the soil, water, and environment
31.9 Policies for nitrogen management in South Asia
31.10 Legume-based policies for soil and environmental protection
31.11 Needful advance plans for organizations to reduce nitrogen consumption with legume accommodation
31.12 Conclusions
Abbreviations
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 32 - Pulses production, trade and policy imperatives: A global perspective
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Trends in area, production, and productivity of pulses
32.2.1 Global scenario
32.2.2 Regional scenario
32.2.3 Countries scenario
32.2.4 Productivity levels vis-à-vis efficiency gap
32.3 Trends in pulses trade
32.3.1 Exports scenario
32.3.2 Imports scenario
32.4 Research trends in pulses
32.5 Pulses sector: A case of India
32.5.1 Growing seasons
32.5.2 Marketing and consumption of pulses in India
32.5.3 Policies on pulses – an overview
32.5.3.1 Minimum support prices for pulses
32.6 Research themes and priority areas
32.7 Future perspectives
32.8 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 33 - Multiple pathways of legume-based systems towards environmental, social, and economic sustainability in small ...
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Pathway consideration for legume-based cropping systems
33.3 Legume-based cropping systems
33.3.1 Diverse role of legume-based cropping systems
33.3.2 Legume as intercrops and mixed crops
33.3.3 Performance of other crops in legume-based cropping systems
33.3.3.1 Intercrops
33.3.3.2 Sequence crops
33.3.4 Legume-based cropping systems and crop residues
33.4 Legume-based cropping systems and soil fertility
33.4.1 Legume-based cropping systems and soil carbon dynamics
33.4.2 Nutrient management and soil nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium dynamics in legume-based cropping systems
33.5 Legume-based cropping systems and their linkages with livestock systems
33.5.1 Legume-based cropping systems and animal feed
33.5.1.1 Grain legumes
33.5.1.2 Legume seed screenings
33.5.1.3 Legume crop residues
33.5.2 Legume-based cropping systems and quality of livestock products
33.6 Legume-based cropping systems: Emission and energetics
33.6.1 Legume-based cropping systems and greenhouse gases emission
33.6.2 Legume-based cropping systems and energetics
33.7 The economics and market opportunities of legumes
33.7.1 Livelihood contributions, market realities, and legume seed systems
33.7.2 Postharvest management and global market trend
33.8 Legume-based cropping systems and food, nutrition, and health outcomes
33.8.1 Nutritive value of legumes and implications for human health
33.8.2 Making legumes more attractive for human consumption
33.8.3 Pathways of improving human health and nutrition
33.9 Future perspectives
33.10 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Chapter 34 - Legumes for improving socio-economic conditions of farmers in rainfed agroecosystem
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Rainfed agro-ecosystems - An overview
34.3 Constraints and challenges of rainfed farming
34.4 Legumes in rainfed farming
34.4.1 Scope of legumes in rainfed agriculture
34.4.2 Role of legume vegetation on enhancing soil physical properties
34.4.3 Role of legume crops in improving soil chemical properties
34.4.4 Role of legume vegetation in enhancing soil microbial biomass
34.5 Potential of legumes and their socio-economic benefits in sustainable and productive rainfed farming
34.6 Socio-economic benefits of legumes
34.6.1 Identifying the benefits and costs
34.6.2 Quantifying the costs and benefits
34.7 Challenges and opportunities for legumes cultivation by smallholders in rainfed agroecosystem
34.8 Possible future policy and action plan
34.9 Major/broad areas for yield improvement in rainfed crops in the future
34.10 Future perspectives
34.11 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
Contents
Index