This book discusses the latest research in the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and screening of diabetes and its management. It reviews novel technologies for early diagnosis and highlights the molecular mechanisms of microvascular and macrovascular complications of diabetes 2 mellitus. The book covers the applications of nanotechnology in diagnostics, monitoring, and treatment of diabetes mellitus. The chapter also presents the latest developments in differentiating pancreatic cells from PSCs and illustrates the challenges of their therapeutic application in treating diabetes. The book also explores the prospective medicinal plants comprising either plant extract or isolated bioactive phytoconstituents bearing anti-diabetic potential, which has been reported in several in vitro, in vivo, or clinical studies. It further examines the major mechanisms involved in cardiovascular complications among type 2 diabetes mellitus individuals and discusses the various pharmacological interventions and agents developed to delay cardiovascular events and thereby the quality and duration of the patients. Towards the end, the book summarizes the potential impact of ketogenic diets on diabetic patients, and the role of genetic vulnerability in diabetic nephropathy. As such, this book is a valuable source for students, researchers, and practitioners working in glucose metabolism, diabetes, and human health.
Author(s): Rana Noor
Publisher: Springer
Year: 2023
Language: English
Pages: 260
City: Singapore
Preface
Contents
Editor and Contributors
Biochemical Assay for Measuring Diabetes Mellitus
1 Introduction
2 Types of DM
2.1 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
2.2 Diabetes Mellitus Type 2
3 Biosynthesis and Action of Insulin
3.1 Insulin: Structure and Function
3.2 Insulin Biosynthesis: The Cell Biology
4 Biochemical Assay of Diabetes Mellitus
5 Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) Test
6 Glucose Urine Test
7 Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)
7.1 Specimen Requirement
7.2 Procedure for Testing
7.3 Results
7.4 Clinical Significance
8 HbA1C Testing
8.1 A1c and Blood Sugar
8.2 Limitations
9 Estimation of Serum Creatinine
9.1 Creatinine
10 Estimation of Urine Microalbumin
10.1 Results
11 New Assays for Diabetes
11.1 Glucometer at Home Measuring
11.2 Salivary Glucose as a Nonintrusive Type 2 Diabetes Biomarker
12 Conclusion
References
Diabetes and Other Comorbidities: Microvascular and Macrovascular Diseases Diabetes and Cancer
1 Introduction
2 Causes of Diabetes
3 Diabetes Types
3.1 Type 1 Diabetes
3.2 Type 2 Diabetes
3.3 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
4 Diabetes and Cancers
5 Diabetes and Cancer Biological Interlinks
6 Diabetes and Microvascular Complications
7 Genetics of Diabetes
7.1 Diabetes Type 1
7.2 IDDM1 Genes
8 Insulin (INS) Expression
9 Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte-Associated 4 Genes (CITLA-4)
9.1 Type 2 Diabetes
9.2 PPARy Gene
9.3 ABBCCS Gene
10 Calpain10 or CAPN10 Gene
11 Maturation: Onset of T2D in Young
12 GCK (Glucokinase)
13 HNF4A Gene
14 HNF1A Gene
15 IPF1 Gene
16 HNF1B
17 NEUROD1
18 Conclusion
References
Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disorder
1 Introduction
2 Mechanism of CVD Risk in T2DM Patients
2.1 Role of Hyperglycemia
2.2 Role of Insulin Resistance/Hyperinsulinaemia
2.3 Role of Dyslipidemia
2.4 Role of Oxidative Stress
2.5 Role of Hypercoagulability
2.6 Role of Vascular Calcification
2.7 Role of Blood Pressure
2.8 Role of Obesity
2.9 Role of Genetic Polymorphism
3 Pharmacological Therapy
4 Conclusion
References
Diabetes and Neurological Disorder
1 Introduction
2 Types of Diabetes Mellitus
2.1 Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
2.2 Diabetes Mellitus Type 2
3 Neurological Disorders Associated with Diabetes Mellitus
3.1 Diabetes and Depression
Physiological Factors
3.2 Diabetes and Epilepsy
Pathophysiology of Epilepsy in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
3.3 Diabetes and Dementia
3.4 Diabetes and Stress
3.5 Diabetes and Stroke
4 Conclusion
References
Diabetic and Nephropathy
1 Introduction
2 Epidemiology
3 Stage I: Early Hypertrophy-Hyperfiltration
4 Stage II: Latent Diabetic Nephropathy
5 Stage III: Incipient Diabetic Nephropathy
6 Stage IV: Overt Nephropathy
7 Stage V: End-Stage Renal Disease
8 Conclusion
References
Technology in the Management of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Recent Status and Future Prospects
1 Introduction
2 What Is Diabetes?
2.1 What Is Type I Diabetes?
2.2 What Is Type 2 Diabetes?
3 Technology in the Management of T1D Mellitus
3.1 Insulin Delivery
Insulin Pens
Insulin Pumps
3.2 Glucose Monitoring
Measurements of Glucose in the Capillary Blood
Constant Glucose Measuring
Periodic Glucose Monitoring´s Effectiveness
Flash Glucose Monitoring
3.3 Delivery of Glucose-Sensitive Insulin
Threshold-Based Insulin Suspension
Predictive Low-Glucose Insulin Suspension
Closed-Loop Systems
3.4 Data Management
Data Download
Remote Monitoring
Mobile Diabetes Applications
3.5 Islet Cell Transplant
4 Technology in the Management of T2D Mellitus
4.1 Technology-Enabled Self-Management
4.2 Glucose Monitoring
Blood Glucose Monitoring
Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose
Flash Glucose Monitoring
Continuous Monitoring of Glucose Levels
Implantable Glucose Monitors
4.3 Insulin Delivery
Insulin Pens
Insulin Pumps
4.4 Glucose-Responsive Insulin Delivery
5 Recent Status and Future Prospects
6 Conclusion
References
The Broader Aspects of Treating Diabetes with the Application of Nanobiotechnology
1 Introduction
2 Global Scenario of Diabetes
3 Pathophysiology of Diabetes and Its Types
3.1 Type 1 Diabetes
3.2 Type 2 Diabetes
3.3 Gestational Diabetes
3.4 MODY or Maturity-Onset Diabetes in Young
3.5 Mechanism
3.6 The Diabetic Signaling Pathway Process
3.7 Insulin
3.8 AMPS
3.9 PPAR
4 Introduction to Nanotechnology
5 Conventional Treatment Approach Today
5.1 Biguanides
5.2 Meglitinides or Glinides (Prandial Glucose Regulators)
5.3 Sulphonylureas
5.4 Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitors
5.5 Glitazones or Thiazolidinedione
5.6 DPP-4 Inhibitors/Gliptins
5.7 Incretin Mimetics/GLP-1 Analogs
5.8 Amylin Analogs
5.9 SGLT2 Inhibitors/Gliflozin Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2
6 Nanotechnology as a Future Prospect in Diabetes Treatment
6.1 Vesicular System
6.2 Liposomes
6.3 Nanocochleates
6.4 Niosomes
6.5 Phytosomes
6.6 Polymeric Nanoparticles
6.7 Inartificial-Polymer-Type Nanoparticles
6.8 Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles
6.9 Alginate/Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles
6.10 Gum-Based NPs and Gum-Chitosan-Based NPs
6.11 Dextran-Based NPs
6.12 Synthetic-Polymer-Based NPS
6.13 PLGA-Based NPS
6.14 PLA-, PCL-, and PVA-Based NPS
6.15 Polyethylene Glycol Surface Modification
6.16 Micelles
6.17 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
6.18 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs)
6.19 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)
6.20 Nanoemulsions (NEs) and Self-Nano-Emulsifying Drug-Delivery Systems (SNEDDSs): NEs
6.21 SNEDDS
6.22 Metallic Nanoparticles
6.23 Mesoporous-Silica-Based Nanoparticles
7 Conclusion
References
A Comprehensive Pharmacological Appraisal of Indian Traditional Medicinal Plants with Anti-diabetic Potential
1 Introduction
2 History of Indian Medicinal Plants for Diabetes Control
3 Pharmacological Management of Diabetes Mellitus
4 Pharmacological Management
4.1 Insulin Therapy
4.2 For Patients with Type-1 Diabetes
4.3 For Patients with Type-2 Diabetes
4.4 Sulfonylureas
4.5 Metformin Hydrochloride
4.6 Acarbose
5 Potential Plant Used for Diabetes Control
6 Medicinal Plants and Their Active Parts in Diabetes Mellitus Management
7 Phyto-Chemistry of Medicinal Plants
7.1 Alkaloids
7.2 Phenolic Compounds
7.3 Terpenes
8 Mechanism of Action in Diabetes Management
8.1 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.)
8.2 Aloe vera
8.3 Allium cepa
8.4 Aegle marmelos
8.5 Azadirachta indica (Neem)
8.6 Gymnema sylvestre
8.7 Momordica charantia
8.8 Syzygium cumini
8.9 Ficus benghalensis
8.10 Trigonella foenum-graecum
8.11 Coccinia indica
9 Future Prospects of Indian Medicinal Plants in Diabetes
10 Conclusion
References
Diabetes Management: From ``Painful´´ Pricks to ``Pain-Free´´ Bliss
1 Introduction
2 History of Insulin Discovery
3 Insulin Analogs
4 Insulin Lispro
5 Insulin Aspart
6 Insulin Glulisine
7 Insulin Glargine
8 Insulin Detemir
9 Insulin Delivery Methods
10 Microneedle
11 Chemical Permeation Enhancer
12 Patches
13 Sonophoresis
14 Iontophoresis
15 Electroporation
16 Vesicle Formation
17 Diabetes Is a Pain
18 Alternative Insulin Delivery Routes
19 Inhalable Insulin
20 Oral Insulin
21 Intradermal Insulin
22 Transdermal Insulin
23 Nanotechnology in Insulin Administration
24 Conclusion
References
Diabetes Mellitus and iPSC-Based Therapy
1 Introduction
2 Disease Overview
2.1 Diabetes Insipidus
2.2 Diabetes Mellitus: Type I (T1D)
2.3 Diabetes Mellitus: Type II (T2D)
3 Disease Pathogenesis
3.1 Disease Pathogenesis
4 Prevalence
5 Stem Cell and Diabetes Mellitus
6 Types of Stem Cell Therapy for Diabetes
7 β-Cells and Their Function
7.1 iPSC
8 Direct Differentiation: Pancreatic β-Cells
8.1 Islets Derived from Stem Cells: Insights from NGS of iPSCs
9 In Vivo Cell Therapy: Animal Models´ Influences
10 Conclusion
References
Influence of Ketogenic Diet on Diabetes
1 Introduction
2 What Is a Ketogenic Diet?
3 Physiological Changes in the Body Due to the Ketogenic Diet
4 Ketosis and Glycolysis
5 Ketogenic Diet and Its Observation in Diabetic Patients
6 Conclusions
References
