Advances in Clean Energy: Production and Application

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Authors
Chapter 1 Global Energy Sources and Present Energy Scenario
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief History of Fossil Fuels
1.2.1 Coal
1.2.2 Petrol and Diesel
1.2.3 Natural Gas
1.2.4 Other Fossil Fuels
1.3 Renewable Energy Sources – Biomass
1.3.1 What Is Biomass?
1.3.2 Biomass Feedstocks
1.3.2.1 Edible Crops
1.3.2.2 Non-Edible Crops
1.3.2.3 Lignocellulosic Biomass Waste
1.4 Global Energy Needs – Present and Future
1.5 Indian Energy Needs – Present and Future
1.6 Climate Change
1.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 2 Biodiesel Production Techniques – The State of the Art
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Catalyst in Transesterification
2.2.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
2.2.1.1 Acid Catalyst
2.2.1.2 Base Catalyst
2.2.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
2.2.2.1 Acid Catalyst
2.2.2.2 Base Catalyst
2.2.2.3 Enzymatic Catalyst
2.3 Co-Solvent Transesterification
2.4 Microwave-Assisted Transesterification
2.5 Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification
2.6 Non-Catalytic Supercritical Methanol Transesterification
2.7 Purification of Biodiesel
2.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Physicochemical and Thermal Properties of Biodiesel
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Acid Value
3.3 Saponification Value
3.4 Iodine Value
3.5 Cetane Number
3.6 Cloud and Pour Point
3.7 Cold Filter Plugging Point
3.8 Kinematic Viscosity
3.9 Density
3.10 Carbon Residue
3.11 Copper Strip Corrosion
3.12 Flash and Fire Point
3.13 Sulfur Content
3.14 Metal Content
3.15 Methanol Content
3.16 Phosphorus Content
3.17 Free Glycerol and Total Glycerin
3.18 Mono-, Di-, and Triglycerides
3.19 Ester Content
3.20 Lubricity
3.21 Oxidation Stability
3.22 Thermal Behavior
3.23 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4 Effect of Biodiesel and Additives on Diesel Engine Efficiency and Emission
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Metal Additives and Their Drawbacks
4.3 Lower Alcohol Additives
4.4 Higher Alcohol Additives
4.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Recent Advanced Injection Strategy on Biodiesel Combustion
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Single Injection on CRDI-Assisted Diesel Engine
5.3 Split Injection Strategy
5.4 Multiple Injection Strategy
5.5 Combination of Split Injection and EGR on Biodiesel Combustion
5.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Low-Temperature Combustion Technology on Biodiesel Combustion
6.1 Introduction
6.2 History and Different Methods Used for Emission Reduction
6.2.1 Blending with Diesel
6.2.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation System
6.2.3 Water Injection
6.2.4 Emulsion Technology
6.2.5 Combustion Geometry Modification
6.2.6 Different Nozzle Opening Pressure and Timing
6.2.6.1 Effect of Fuel Injection Timing
6.2.6.2 Effect of Fuel Injection Pressure (FIP) or Nozzle Opening Pressure (NOP)
6.2.7 Influence of Fuel Injection Timing and Fuel Injection Pressure (FIP) on the Spray Characteristics
6.3 Low-Temperature Combustion (LTC)
6.3.1 Different Methods for Attaining LTC
6.3.2 Importance of Advanced Injection Strategy in the LTC
6.3.3 Effect of Higher Injection Pressure in the Electronic Injection Strategy
6.3.4 Effect of Split Injection Strategy
6.4 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
6.4.1 Challenges of HCCI Combustion
6.4.2 Factors Affecting Combustion Phasing Control
6.4.3 Higher Level of HC and CO along with Combustion Noise
6.4.4 Operation Range
6.4.5 Cold Start
6.4.6 Homogeneous Mixture Preparation
6.5 Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PCCI)
6.6 Partially Premixed Charge Compression Ignition (PPCI)
6.7 Reactive Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI)
6.7.1 A Fundamental Concept of RCCI
6.7.2 Importance of Fuel Reactivity
6.7.3 Low Reactive Fuel Management
6.7.4 Biofuels Used in the RCCI Combustion
6.7.5 Single-Fuel RCCI Combustion
6.8 Low-Temperature Combustion Advantages and Challenges
6.9 High-Efficiency Clean Combustion
6.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7 Solid Waste Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Waste Quantities and Characterization
7.3 Storage and Collection of Solid Wastes
7.4 Facilities for Materials Recovery and Recycling
7.5 Health and Safety Risks
7.6 Environmental Pollution
7.7 Different Technologies for Solid Waste Management
7.8 Future Solid Waste Management Policy
7.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Assessment of Physicochemical Properties and Analytical Characterization of Lignocellulosic Biomass
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass Feedstocks Available for Energy Purposes
8.2.1 Agriculture
8.2.2 Forest
8.2.3 Industry
8.3 Choice of Pre-Treatment Based on Biomass Types
8.3.1 Acid/Alkali Treatment
8.3.2 Ammonia Fiber Expansion
8.3.3 Steam Explosion
8.3.3.1 Variables Affecting Steam Explosion Pre-Treatment
8.3.3.2 Moisture and Particle Size
8.4 Physicochemical Properties of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Engineering Applications
8.4.1 Density
8.4.1.1 Particle Density
8.4.1.2 Bulk Density
8.4.2 Flowability
8.4.3 Particle Size
8.4.4 Moisture Sorption
8.4.5 Thermal Properties
8.4.5.1 Thermal Conductivity
8.4.5.2 Specific Heat
8.5 Chemical Properties
8.5.1 Proximate Analysis
8.5.2 Ultimate Analysis
8.5.3 Energy Content
8.5.4 Compositional Analysis
8.6 An Assessment of the Sustainability of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Biorefining
8.6.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstocks for Energy and Economic Sustainability
8.6.2 Biofuels and Food Security
8.6.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Lignocellulosic Biomass and Biofuels
8.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9 Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion into Second- and Third-Generation Biofuels
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Energy Security and Greenhouse Emission vs Biofuel
9.1.2 Bioenergy around the Globe
9.2 Biomass Gasification
9.2.1 Gasification Chemistry
9.2.2 Gasifying Medium
9.2.3 Equivalence Ratio
9.2.4 Gasifier Temperature
9.3 Gasifier Design
9.3.1 Fixed Bed Gasifiers
9.3.1.1 Updraft Gasifier
9.3.1.2 Downdraft Gasifier
9.3.1.3 Cross Draft Gasifier
9.3.2 Fluidized Bed Gasifier
9.3.2.1 Circulating Fluid Bed Gasifier
9.3.2.2 Twin Fluid Bed Gasifier
9.3.1.3 Entrained Bed Gasifier
9.4 Gas Cleaning and Cooling
9.4.1 Cleaning Dust from the Gas
9.4.2 Tar Cracking
9.4.2.1 Catalytic Cracking
9.4.2.2 Thermal Cracking
9.5 Alcohol Production
9.5.1 Thermodynamics of Bio-Methanol Synthesis
9.5.2 Unique Higher Alcohol Synthesis
9.5.2.1 Biobutanol Production
9.5.2.2 Green Diesel Production
9.6 Application of Biofuel in Fuel Cells
9.6.1 Transport and Energy Generation
9.6.2 Implantable Power Sources
9.6.3 Wastewater Treatment
9.6.4 Robots
9.7 LCA on Biofuel Production
9.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 The Microbiology Associated with Biogas Production Process
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Microbiology Associated with the Biogas Production Process
10.2.1 Functioning and Growth of Microorganisms
10.2.1.1 Energy Source
10.2.1.2 Electron Acceptors
10.2.1.3 Building Blocks
10.2.1.4 Trace Elements and Vitamins
10.2.2 Environmental Factors
10.2.2.1 Temperature
10.2.2.2 Oxygen
10.2.2.3 pH
10.2.2.4 Salts
10.3 Breakdown of Organic Compounds
10.3.1 Hydrolysis
10.3.2 Fermentation
10.3.3 Anaerobic Oxidation
10.3.4 Methane Formation
10.4 The Importance of Technology to Microbiology
10.4.1 Start-Up of a Biogas Process
10.4.2 Process Design
10.4.3 Important Operating Parameters
10.4.3.1 Feedstock Composition
10.4.3.2 C/N Ratio
10.4.3.3 Particle Size
10.5 Substrates
10.5.1 Selection of Substrates
10.5.2 Pre-Treatments
10.5.3 Sanitation
10.5.4 Thickening
10.5.5 Reduction of Particle Size/Increased Solubility
10.6 Toxicity
10.6.1 Inhibition Levels
10.6.2 Inhibiting Substances
10.7 Monitoring and Evaluation of the Biogas Production Process
10.7.1 Monitoring Involved in the Biogas Process
10.7.1.1 Loading and Retention Time
10.7.1.2 Substrate Composition
10.7.1.3 Gas Quantity
10.7.1.4 Gas Composition
10.7.1.5 Process Efficiency
10.8 The Digested Residues
10.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Current Status and Perspectives of Biogas Upgrading and Utilization
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Need for Biogas Upgradation
11.2 Technologies Involved in Biogas Upgrading
11.2.1 Absorption
11.2.1.1 Physical absorption
11.2.1.2 Chemical absorption
11.2.2 Physical Absorption Method Using Water Scrubbing System
11.2.3 Physical Absorption Method Using Organic Solvents
11.2.4 Chemical Absorption Method Using Amine Solutions
11.2.4.1 Adsorption
11.2.5 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
11.2.6 Membrane Separation
11.2.7 Cryogenic Separation Process
11.2.8 Chemical Hydrogenation Process
11.2.9 Chemoautotrophic Methods
11.2.9.1 In situ Biological Biogas Upgrading
11.2.9.2 Ex situ Biological Biogas Upgrading
11.2.9.3 Microbial Communities in Biological Biogas Upgrading Systems
11.2.10 Photoautotrophic Methods
11.2.11 Biogas Upgrading through Other Fermentation Processes
11.2.12 Biogas Upgrading through Microbial Electrochemical Methods
11.3 Biogas Upgradation Technologies under Development
11.3.1 Industrial Lung
11.3.2 Supersonic Separation
11.4 Comparative Analysis of the Various Biogas Upgradation Technologies
11.4.1 Cost-Economics
11.4.2 Technology
11.4.3 Environmental Sustainability
11.5 Future Perspectives on Biogas Upgradation
11.5.1 Moving towards Hybrid Upgradation Technologies
11.5.2 Utilization of Methane Available in Off-Gas
11.5.3 Making Small-Scale Upgrading Plants Economical
11.5.4 Support Policies
11.6 Conclusion
References
Index