Advancement in Polymer-Based Membranes for Water Remediation

Advancement in Polymer-based Membranes for Water Remediation
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Foreword
List of contributors
About the editors
Acknowledgments
1 Microfiltration and ultrafiltration membrane technologies
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Basics of membrane process
1.1.2 Historical overview of ultrafiltration and microfiltration membranes
1.1.2.1 Microfiltration membrane
1.1.2.2 Ultrafiltration membrane
1.2 Membrane science and theory
1.2.1 Solute and solvent transport through microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes
1.2.2 Concentration polarization
1.2.3 Membrane material and geometry
1.2.4 Mode of operation in the membrane process
1.2.5 Fouling in microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes
1.2.5.1 Regeneration by physical cleaning
1.2.5.2 Regeneration by chemical cleaning
1.3 Membrane characterization methods
1.3.1 Invasive methods
1.3.1.1 Chemical composition of the membrane surface
1.3.1.1.1 Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
1.3.1.1.2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
1.3.1.1.3 Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
1.3.1.2 Morphologies of the membrane surface
1.3.1.2.1 Scanning electron microscope
1.3.1.2.2 Environmental scanning electron microscopy
1.3.1.2.3 Atomic force microscopy
1.3.2 Noninvasive methods
1.3.2.1 Inline method
1.3.2.2 At-line method
1.3.2.3 Offline method
1.4 Module design and process configuration
1.4.1 Module design
1.4.1.1 Plate-and-frame membrane module
1.4.1.2 Tubular module
1.4.1.3 Spiral-wound module
1.4.1.4 Hollow fiber/shell and tube module
1.4.2 Process configuration
1.4.2.1 Continuous filtration process
1.4.2.2 Batch filtration
1.4.2.3 Feed-and-bleed/fed-batch filtration
1.4.2.4 Single and multistage
1.4.2.5 Single and multipass
1.4.3 Commercial fabrication techniques employed for polymeric flat sheet and hollow-fiber membranes
1.4.3.1 Flat-sheet membranes
1.4.3.2 Hollow-fiber membranes
1.5 Application of polymeric ultrafiltration and microfiltration membranes
1.5.1 Potable water reuse
1.5.2 Recovery of dye and pigments
1.5.3 Treatment of effluent generated by dairy processing industries
1.5.4 Treatment of oily wastewater
1.5.5 Recovery of heavy metal from industry effluent
1.6 Summary
References
2 Polymer-based microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Polymers as raw material to synthesize microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes
2.2.1 Classification
2.2.2 Membrane fabrication method microfiltration/ultrafiltration
2.2.2.1 Mechanical techniques
2.2.2.1.1 Stretching
2.2.2.1.2 Sintering
2.2.2.2 Chemical techniques
2.2.2.2.1 Track etching
2.2.2.2.2 Template leaching
2.2.2.2.3 Phase inversion
Vapor-induced phase separation
Liquid-induced phase separation
Thermally induced phase separation
Phase inversion techniques under progress in laboratory
2.2.2.2.4 Electrospinning
2.2.2.2.5 3D-printing
2.2.2.2.6 Nanoimprint lithography
Thermal nanoimprint lithography
Photo nanoimprint lithography
2.2.3 Commercial status of membrane fabrication techniques
2.2.3.1 Fabrication of flat-sheet membranes
2.2.3.2 Fabrication of hollow-fiber membranes
2.3 Effect of polymer-enhanced microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes
2.3.1 Structural property
2.3.1.1 Crystallinity of the polymer
2.3.1.2 Pore structure
2.3.1.3 Surface properties
2.3.1.3.1 Hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of the membrane
2.3.1.3.2 Surface charge
2.3.2 Functionalization methods for membrane surface
2.3.2.1 Surface functional modification
2.3.2.1.1 Self-assembly
2.3.2.1.2 Coating
2.3.2.1.3 Chemical treatment
2.3.2.1.4 Plasma treatment
2.3.2.1.5 Surface graft polymerization
2.3.2.2 Functionalization of polymeric membrane by molecular imprinting
2.3.2.2.1 Formation of imprinting sites by surface photo-grafting
2.3.2.2.2 Formation of imprinting sites by surface deposition
2.3.2.2.3 Formation of imprinting sites by emulsion polymerization on the surface
2.3.2.3 Functionalization of polymeric membrane by enzyme immobilization
2.3.2.3.1 Enzyme immobilization by physical absorption
2.3.2.3.2 Enzyme immobilization by chemical binding
2.3.2.3.3 Enzyme immobilization by entrapment
2.3.2.3.4 Other methods for enzyme immobilization
2.3.3 Physiochemical properties
2.3.3.1 Membrane surface modification using hydrophilic materials
2.3.3.2 Membrane surface modification using hydrophobic/amphiphilic materials
2.4 Recent advances made in polymeric microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes for water remediation application
2.4.1 Polymeric nanocomposite membranes
2.4.2 Literature review on the recent advances made in the field of polymeric microfiltration/ultrafiltration for water rem...
2.5 Microplastics and polymeric membranes
2.6 Prospective
References
3 Polymer-based nano-enhanced microfiltration/ultrafiltration membranes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nanocomposite membranes
3.3 Hollow fiber nano-enhanced membranes
3.4 Main aspects in membrane performances
3.4.1 Fouling membranes
3.4.2 Permeability and selectivity
3.4.3 Physical properties
3.5 Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide
3.5.1 Fouling
3.5.2 Permeability and selectivity
3.5.3 Physical properties
3.6 Metallic nanoparticles
3.6.1 Titanium dioxide
3.6.2 Silver
3.6.3 Copper
3.6.4 Zinc oxide
3.6.5 Fouling
3.6.6 Permeability and selectivity
3.6.7 Physical properties
3.7 Stability of nanocomposite membranes
3.8 Future research
3.9 Challenges and future perspectives
3.10 Conclusions
References
Further reading
4 Nanofiltration membrane technologies
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Operation principle and transport mechanism
4.2.1 Nanofiltration pore model development and progress
4.2.2 Diffusion and filtration mechanism
4.2.3 Role of membrane charge on NF performance
4.3 Types of polymeric membranes and application domain
4.3.1 Polymer used in membrane synthesis
4.3.2 Other types of NF membranes
4.3.2.1 Carbon nanomaterials-based NF
4.3.2.2 Metal–organic framework-based NF
4.3.3 Application of NF membrane
4.3.3.1 Dye containing wastewater treatment in textile industry
4.3.3.2 NF in food processing industry
4.3.3.3 NF in heavy metals removal from industrial waste
4.4 Polymeric membrane structure and configurations
4.5 NF membrane preparation technologies
4.5.1 Interfacial polymerization
4.5.2 Phase inversion
4.5.3 Posttreatment of porous support
4.5.4 Layer-by-layer assembly
4.5.5 Hollow fiber NF membrane
4.6 Commercially available membranes
4.7 Limitations and key mitigation strategies
4.7.1 Nexus between NF properties: fouling and antifouling
4.7.2 Generation of membrane retentate
4.8 Summary and future directions
References
5 Polymer-based nanofiltration membranes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Polymer-based nanofiltration membranes
5.2.1 Natural and bioinspired nanofiltration membranes
5.2.2 Mixed-matrix nanofiltration membranes
5.2.3 Block-copolymer nanofiltration membrane
5.2.4 Intrinsic microporous polymer-based nanofiltration membrane
5.3 Preparation of polymer-based nanofiltration membranes
5.3.1 Phase inversion
5.3.2 Interfacial polymerization
5.3.3 Layer-by-layer assembly
5.3.4 Posttreatment
5.4 Thin-film polymer composite nanofiltration membranes
5.5 Effect of polymeric support
5.6 Potential of polymer-composite nanofiltration membranes for water desalination
5.7 Polymers for solvent-resistant nanofiltration membranes
5.8 Commercialization status and commercial viability
5.9 Summary and future direction
References
6 Polymer-based nanoenhanced nanofiltration membranes
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Introduction to nanoenhanced nanofiltration membranes
6.1.1.1 Preparation of nanoenhanced nanofiltration membranes
6.2 Mixed matrix polymer-based nanoenhanced nanofiltration membranes
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Asymmetric mixed matrix nanofiltration membranes prepared by phase inversion
6.2.3 Thin-film polymer nanocomposite nanofiltration membranes
6.2.3.1 Fabrication of thin-film nanocomposite nanofiltration membranes
6.2.3.1.1 Graphene oxide-based thin-film nanocomposite nanofiltration membranes
6.2.3.1.2 Carbon nanotube-incorporated thin-film nanocomposite nanofiltration membranes
6.2.3.1.3 Metal–organic framework-integrated thin-film nanocomposite nanofiltration membranes
6.2.3.1.4 Nanohybrid structure-based thin-film nanocomposite membranes
6.3 Electrospun nanofibrous polymers for nanofiltration applications
6.3.1 Introduction to electrospinning
6.3.2 Electrospun nanofiber application in nanofiltration
6.4 Nanoenhanced hollow-fiber nanofiltration membranes
6.5 Commercialization status and commercial viability
6.6 Summary and future directions
Abbreviations
References
7 Polymer-based bioinspired, biomimetic, and stimuli-responsive nanofiltration membranes
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Bioinspired membranes and their applications
7.2.1 Dopamine-based nanofiltration membrane
7.2.2 Tannic acid-based nanofiltration membranes
7.2.2.1 Tannic acid-based nanofiltration membranes with hollow fiber configuration
7.2.3 Other bioinspired nanofiltration membranes and their application
7.3 Biomimetic membranes
7.3.1 Aquaporin-based biomimetic membranes
7.3.2 Application of aquaporin-based biomimetic nanofiltration membranes
7.3.3 Aquaporin-based biomimetic nanofiltration membranes with hollow fiber configuration
7.4 Stimuli-responsive/smart membranes
7.4.1 pH-responsive membranes
7.4.2 Magnetically responsive membranes
7.4.3 Temperature-responsive membrane
7.4.4 Photo-responsive membranes
7.4.5 CO2-responsive nanofiltration membranes
7.4.6 Stimuli-responsive membranes with hollow fiber configuration
7.5 Commercial status and future directions
7.6 Summary
Nomenclature
References
8 Reverse and forward osmosis membrane technologies
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of osmotic processes and basic concept
8.2.1 Transport membrane mechanism
8.2.1.1 Irreversible thermodynamics models
8.2.1.2 Homogeneous models
8.2.1.3 Solution–diffusion–imperfection model
8.2.1.4 Extended solution–diffusion model
8.2.1.5 Pore models
8.3 Reverse osmosis and forward osmosis membranes
8.4 Concentration polarization in an osmotic-driven membrane
8.4.1 External concentration polarization
8.4.2 Internal concentration polarization
8.5 Reverse osmosis and forward osmosis membrane fabrication methods
8.6 Advances in forward osmosis and reverse osmosis membranes’ structures and properties
8.6.1 Reverse osmosis membrane development
8.6.2 Forward osmosis membrane development
8.6.2.1 Phase inversion membranes
8.6.2.1.1 Cellulose acetate
8.6.2.1.2 Polybenzimidazole
8.6.2.1.3 Polyamide-imide
8.6.2.1.4 Composite membranes
8.6.2.1.5 Thin-film composite membranes
8.6.2.1.6 Thin-film nanocomposite membranes
8.6.2.1.7 Layer-by-layer composite membranes
8.6.2.1.8 Biomimetic membranes
8.7 Custom designs of flat sheet forward osmosis and reverse osmosis membranes
8.7.1 Selective rejection layer
8.7.2 Support polymeric layer
8.7.3 Support backing fabric
8.8 Concluding remarks and recommendations
References
9 Polymer-based reverse osmosis membranes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Asymmetric polymer-based reverse osmosis membranes
9.3 Thin-film composite membrane
9.3.1 Reverse osmosis membranes for boron removal
9.3.2 Reverse osmosis membranes for antifouling/chlorine tolerant
9.3.3 Hollow fiber reverse osmosis membranes
9.4 Potential of different polymer-based reverse osmosis membranes for brackish water desalination
9.5 Polymer-based reverse osmosis membranes for seawater desalination
9.5.1 Polyelectrolyte membranes
9.5.2 Aquaporin biomimetic membranes
9.5.3 Supramolecular polymers and water-soluble polymers
9.6 Commercialization status and commercial viability
9.7 Summary and future direction
References
10 Polymer-based nano-enhanced reverse osmosis membranes
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Preparation strategies of polymer-based nano-enhanced reverse osmosis membranes
10.2.1 Conventional nanocomposite or mixed matrix membrane
10.2.2 Thin-film composite with nanocomposite substrate
10.2.3 Thin-film nanocomposite
10.2.4 Nanocomposite located at membrane surface
10.3 Polymer nanocomposite reverse osmosis membranes
10.3.1 Carbon based
10.3.1.1 Carbon nanotubes
10.3.1.2 Graphene oxide
10.3.1.3 Quantum dots
10.3.2 Metal and metal oxides based
10.3.2.1 Silver
10.3.2.2 Copper
10.3.2.3 Titanium dioxide
10.3.2.4 Zinc oxide
10.3.2.5 Alumina
10.3.2.6 Metal-organic frameworks
10.3.3 Other nanoparticles
10.3.3.1 Silica
10.3.3.2 Halloysite (aluminosilicate)
10.3.3.3 Zeolite
10.3.3.4 Cellulose nanocrystals
10.4 Potential of different polymer-based nanocomposite reverse osmosis membranes for water desalination
10.5 Potential other applications of polymer nanocomposite reverse osmosis membranes in water treatment
10.6 Commercialization status and viability
10.7 Way forward
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Reuse and recycling of end-of-life reverse osmosis membranes
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Reverse osmosis membrane technology
11.3 Reverse osmosis membranes and modules
11.4 Fouling in reverse osmosis separation process: problem, prevention, and cleaning protocols
11.4.1 Inorganic fouling
11.4.2 Colloidal fouling
11.4.3 Organic fouling
11.4.4 Biofouling
11.4.5 Fouling prevention and mitigation
11.5 End-of-life reverse osmosis membrane modules: reuse and recycling techniques
11.5.1 Cleaning strategies adopted for reverse osmosis fouled membranes and discarded modules
11.5.2 Reuse of discarded reverse osmosis membrane modules
11.5.3 Recycling discarded reverse osmosis membrane modules
11.6 Applications of reverse osmosis recycled membranes in other membrane processes
11.6.1 Reverse osmosis recycled membranes in ultrafiltration and microfiltration process
11.6.2 Reverse osmosis recycled membranes in membrane distillation, membrane biofilms reactors, and electrodialysis separat...
11.7 Conclusions
References
12 Polymer-based forward osmosis membranes
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Important notes in forward osmosis membrane transport
12.1.2 Concentration polarization
12.2 Polymer-based flat sheet forward osmosis membranes
12.2.1 Single-layer membranes
12.2.1.1 Cellulosic membranes
12.2.1.2 Polyamide-imide-based membranes
12.2.1.3 Polybenzimidazole membranes
12.2.1.4 Others
12.2.2 Dual-layer membranes
12.2.2.1 Support layer
12.2.2.1.1 Polysulfone-based membranes
12.2.2.1.2 Polyethersulfone-based membranes
12.2.2.1.3 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based membranes
12.2.2.1.4 Cellulosic membranes
12.2.2.1.5 Polyvinyl chloride based membranes
12.2.2.1.6 Poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF)-based membranes
12.2.2.1.7 Polyazole-based membranes
12.2.2.2 Active layer
12.2.2.2.1 Monomers
12.2.2.2.2 Solvent
12.2.2.2.3 Postmodification
12.2.2.2.4 Additive
12.2.2.2.5 Reaction conditions
12.2.3 Layer-by-layer membranes
12.2.4 Double-skinned membranes
12.2.5 Impregnated membranes
12.2.6 Biomimetic membranes
12.3 Polymer-based hollow fiber forward osmosis membranes
12.3.1 Single-layer membranes
12.3.2 Dual-layer membranes
12.3.3 Layer-by-layer membranes
12.3.4 Double-skinned membranes
12.3.5 Biomimetic membranes
12.4 Commercialization status and commercial viability
12.5 Summary and future directions
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
References
13 Polymer-based nano-enhanced forward osmosis membranes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Polymer-based mixed matrix forward osmosis membranes
13.2.1 Overview
13.2.2 Common membrane preparation and modification approaches
13.2.3 Nanomaterials classification
13.3 Polymer-based nanocomposite flat sheet forward osmosis membranes
13.3.1 Methods for nanocomposite forward osmosis membrane preparation
13.3.2 Nanomaterials-incorporated support/substrate layer
13.3.2.1 Substrate layer containing carbon-based nanomaterials
13.3.2.2 Substrate layer containing metal-based nanomaterials
13.3.3 Nanomaterials-incorporated selective/active layer
13.3.3.1 Active layer containing carbon-based nanomaterials
13.3.3.2 Active layer containing metal-based nanomaterials
13.3.4 Nanomaterials-incorporated support/substrate and selective/active layers
13.4 Polymer-based nanocomposite hollow fiber forward osmosis membranes
13.4.1 Active layer modifications
13.4.1.1 Active layer containing carbon-based nanomaterials
13.4.1.2 Active layer containing metal-based nanomaterials
13.4.1.3 Biomimetic forward osmosis membranes
13.5 Nanofibrous-based forward osmosis membranes
13.6 Nanomaterials used in surface modification of forward osmosis membranes
13.7 Polymer-based stimuli-responsive forward osmosis membranes
13.8 Commercialization status of the forward osmosis membranes
13.9 Summary and future directions
References
14 Electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal and capacitive deionization technologies
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Structure of ion-exchange membranes
14.2.1 Anion-exchange membranes
14.2.2 Cation-exchange membranes
14.2.3 Bipolar membranes
14.3 Electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal, and selective electrodialysis
14.3.1 General description of electrodialysis cells: configuration and operating principles
14.3.2 Transport equations and driving forces
14.3.3 Achievements in the use of electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal, and selective electrodialysis as water remedia...
14.4 Capacitive deionization-based technologies
14.4.1 General description of capacitive deionization cells: configuration, operating principles, and flow patterns
14.4.2 Evaluation of the efficiency and performance of the capacitive deionization-based technologies
14.4.3 Achievements in use of capacitive deionization-based technologies as water remediation methods
14.5 Limitations and key mitigation strategies
14.5.1 Process cost
14.5.1.1 Plant investment costs
14.5.1.2 Operating costs
14.5.2 Membrane clogging
14.5.3 Membrane selectivity
14.6 Summary and future directions
References
15 Polymeric membranes in electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal, and capacitive deionization technologies
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ion-exchange membranes and their fabrication processes
15.2.1 Ion-exchange membranes’ classification
15.2.2 Preparation of ion-exchange membranes
15.2.3 Recent developments in polymeric ion-exchange membranes
15.3 Application and performance of ion-exchange membranes in electrodialysis
15.3.1 Desalination with electrodialysis
15.3.2 Wastewater treatment
15.3.3 Preferential ion separation
15.3.4 Other ionic separations
15.4 Application and performance of ion-exchange membranes in electrodialysis reversal
15.4.1 Principle of electrodialysis reversal
15.4.2 Desalination of high-concentration solution
15.4.3 Other ion separation processes
15.5 Application and performance of ion-exchange membranes in membrane capacitive deionization
15.5.1 Role of ion-exchange membrane in membrane capacitive deionization
15.5.2 Desalination processes
15.5.3 Membrane capacitive deionization applications in other deionization processes
15.6 Concluding remarks
References
16 Polymeric nano-enhanced membranes in electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal and capacitive deionization technologies
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Preparation of polymer-based nano-enhanced ion-exchange membranes
16.2.1 Blending
16.2.2 In situ technique
16.3 Analysis of different ion-exchange membranes for water treatment
16.4 Commercialization status and commercial viability
16.5 Summary and future directions
References
17 Polymer-based membranes for membrane distillation
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Dearth of water
17.1.2 History of membrane distillation
17.1.3 Recent trends in polymer-based membranes in membrane distillation
17.2 Principle and different configurations of membrane distillation
17.2.1 Membrane distillation principle
17.2.2 Direct contact membrane distillation
17.2.3 Air gap membrane distillation
17.2.4 Sweep gas membrane distillation
17.2.5 Vacuum membrane distillation
17.3 Fabrication techniques and module designs of MD membrane
17.3.1 Phase inversion
17.3.2 Stretching
17.3.3 Sintering
17.3.4 Electrospinning
17.3.5 MD membrane modules and designs
17.4 Membrane materials for MD
17.5 Characteristics of MD membrane
17.5.1 Liquid entry pressure
17.5.2 Membrane thickness
17.5.3 Pore size and pore size distribution
17.5.4 Porosity and tortuosity of membrane
17.5.5 Mechanical properties
17.5.6 Thermal conductivity
17.6 Operational parameters in membrane distillation
17.6.1 Feed temperature
17.6.2 Flow rate
17.6.3 Feed concentration
17.6.4 Air gap and long operation
17.6.5 Membrane type
17.7 Fouling and wetting phenomena
17.8 Prevention methods of fouling and wetting
17.9 Temperature and concentration polarization
17.10 Applications of membrane distillation
17.11 Economics and energy consumption of membrane distillation
17.12 Conclusion and future directions in membrane distillation
Acknowledgments
References
Index