Advanced Nanocatalysts for Biodiesel Production

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Editors
Contributors
1 Energy: Present and Future Demands
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Energy Sources
1.2.1 Conventional Or Non-Renewable Sources of Energy
1.2.2 Non-Conventional Or Renewable and Clean Sources of Energy
1.3 Energy Demand: Present and Future Scenario
1.4 Transformation of the Energy Sector: Conventional to Clean and Alternate Sources of Energy
1.5 Biofuel
1.6 Conclusion
1.6.1 Challenges
1.6.1.1 Demand and Supply of Energy
1.6.1.2 Technology Advancements and Energy Efficiency
1.6.1.3 Limited Resources and Environmental Degradation
1.6.1.4 Favourable Markets, Prices and Policy Mechanisms
1.6.1.5 Extreme Weather and Climatic Conditions
1.6.1.6 Waste Management
1.7 The Road Ahead
References
2 Biodiesel From First-Generation Feedstock: Scope and Limitations
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Generation of Biodiesel
2.1.2 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
2.2 First-Generation Biodiesel
2.2.1 The Feedstock of First-Generation Biodiesel
2.2.1.1 Soybean (Glycine Max)
2.2.1.2 Sunflower (Helianthus Annuus)
2.2.1.3 Coconut (Cocos Nucifera)
2.2.1.4 Palm Oil (Arecaceae)
2.2.2 Biodiesel Production Method Steps
2.2.3 Biodiesel Yield
2.2.4 Biodiesel Properties and Standards
2.2.4.1 Biodiesel Yield and Characteristics
2.2.4.2 Standards of Biodiesel
2.3 Scope and Limitations of Biodiesel
2.3.1 Challenges for Sustainable Biodiesel Production
2.3.2 Current Perspective and Future Trends
2.4 Conclusion
References
3 Biodiesel From Second-Generation Feedstock:: Role of Fat, Oil and Grease (FOG) as a Viable Feedstock
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biodiesel
3.3 Second-Generation Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
3.3.1 Effect of Fatty Acid Composition On BD Fuel Properties
3.3.1.1 Effect of Unsaturation
3.3.1.2 Effect of Carbon Chain Length
3.4 Alcohol Used for Biodiesel Production
3.5 Catalysts for Second-Generation Feedstock
3.5.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
3.5.2 Heterogeneous Acid Catalysts
3.5.2.1 Sulphated Metal Oxides
3.5.2.2 Mesoporous Silica
3.5.2.3 Heteropolyacids
3.5.2.4 Miscellaneous Solid Acids
3.5.3 Heterogeneous Base Catalysts
3.5.3.1 Alkaline Earth Oxides
3.5.3.2 Alkali-Doped Metal Oxides
3.5.3.3 Transition Metal Oxides
3.5.3.4 Hydrotalcites
3.6 Properties of the Biodiesel Produced From Second-Generation Feedstock
3.7 Current Scenario
3.8 Conclusions and Future Aspects
Acknowledgement
References
4 Role of Catalysts and Their Mechanisms in Biodiesel Synthesis With Reference to Nanomaterials
4.1 Introduction: Background and Latest Developments
4.2 Role of Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production
4.2.1 Chemical Catalysis
4.2.2 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production
4.2.3 Recent Prospects
4.3 Synthesis of Nanocatalysts for Biodiesel Production
4.3.1 Doping Via the Co-Precipitation Method
4.3.2 Wet Impregnation
4.3.3 Chemical Functionalization Or Immobilization
4.4 Mechanism of Nanomaterials as Catalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis
4.4.1 Solid Base-Catalysed Reaction
4.4.2 Solid Acidic-Catalysed Reaction
4.5 Conclusions
References
5 Metal Oxide/Sulphide-Based Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Metal Oxide-Based Nanocatalyst Preparation
5.2.1 Chemical Precipitation/Co-Precipitation Methods
5.2.2 Solvothermal Method
5.2.3 Sol–Gel Method
5.2.4 Impregnation Method
5.2.5 Combustion Synthesis Method
5.2.6 Microwave Synthesis
5.3 Nanoparticle Characterization
5.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
5.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction
5.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
5.3.4 Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)
5.3.5 BET and Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD)
5.3.6 Energy-Dispersive and Photoelectron X-Ray Spectroscopies
5.4 Performance and Advantage of Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production
5.5 Nanocatalyst Reusability and Leaching Analysis
5.6 Metal Sulphides
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Magnetic Nanomaterials and Their Relevance in Transesterification Reactions
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fundamental Aspects of Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs)
6.3 Methods of Synthesis of MNPs
6.3.1 Co-Precipitation Method
6.3.2 Hydrothermal Method
6.3.3 Sol–Gel Method
6.3.4 Combustion Synthesis Method
6.4 Characterization of MNPs
6.4.1 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction (EDXD)
6.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
6.4.3 N2 Adsorption–Desorption Technique
6.4.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
6.4.5 Vibrating Sample Magnetometry (VSM)
6.4.6 Zeta Potential Analysis
6.4.7 Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) Technique
6.5 Application of Magnetic Nanoparticles in Transesterification Reactions
6.6 Influence of Parameters in Transesterification Reactions for Biodiesel Production
6.6.1 Effect of Catalyst (MNPs) Amount
6.6.2 Effect of Alcohol/Oil Molar Ratio
6.6.3 Reaction Time
6.6.4 Reaction Temperature
6.7 Recovery and Recycling of MNPs During Transesterification
6.8 Challenges of MNPs in Transesterification
6.9 Conclusions and Future Outlook
Conflicts of Interest
Authors’ Contributions
References
7 Biomaterial-Based Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biodiesel Synthesis
7.3 Biomaterial-Based Nanocatalysts
7.3.1 Biomass-Based Nanocatalysts From Agro-Industrial Wastes
7.3.2 CaO-Based Nanocatalysts
7.3.3 Disadvantages of Bio-Based Nanocatalysts
7.4 Optimization of Biodiesel Synthesis
7.4.1 Temperature
7.4.2 Reaction Time
7.4.3 Alcohol: Oil Molar Ratio
7.4.4 Catalyst Load
7.5 Conclusion
Notes
References
8 Two-Dimensional (2D) Layered Materials as Emerging Nanocatalysts in the Production of Biodiesel
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Classification of Layered Materials
8.1.2 Two-Dimensional Layered Materials (2DLMs)
8.2 Synthesis of 2D Layered Materials
8.2.1 Mechanical Exfoliation
8.2.2 Ultrasonic Exfoliation
8.2.3 Chemical Vapour Transport
8.2.4 Wet Chemical Strategy
8.3 Role of 2D Layered Materials as Catalyst Support
8.4 Catalytic Activity of Nanoparticles Supported With 2D Layered Materials
8.4.1 Graphene
8.4.2 Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C3N4)
8.4.3 Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN)
8.5 Prospects and Future Research Directions
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 Size-Dependent Catalytic Properties of Nanomaterials, Their Suitability in Terms of Efficiency, Cost-Effectiveness and Sustainability
9.1 Introduction: Nanomaterials and Their Alluring Features
9.2 Synthesis and Characterization of Nanomaterials
9.3 Nanomaterials: Surface Chemistry and Catalytic Activity
9.3.1 Size-Dependent Catalytic Properties of Nanomaterials
9.3.2 Size-Dependent Electronic and Structural Parameters of the Surface of a Metal Catalyst
9.3.3 Size-Dependent Adsorption and Activation Energy
9.4 Nanomaterials: Suitability in Terms of Efficiency, Cost-Effectiveness and Sustainability
9.5 Concluding Remarks
References
10 Utilization of Biodiesel By-Products in Various Industrial Applications
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Main By-Product: Crude Glycerol
10.2.1 Direct Applications
10.2.2 Indirect Applications (As a Precursor Molecule)
10.3 Macro By-Products
10.3.1 WasteWater
10.3.2 Oil-Cake
10.3.3 Methanol
10.4 Micro By-Products
10.4.1 Ion-Exchange Resin Sediment
10.4.2 Magnesium Silicate Sediment
10.4.3 Oil Sediment
10.5 Conclusion
References
11 A Life Cycle Assessment of Biodiesel Production
11.1 Introduction
11.2 First- and Second-Generation Biodiesel
11.2.1 Soybean
11.2.2 Palm
11.2.3 Rapeseed
11.2.4 Sunflower
11.2.5 Jatropha
11.3 Third-Generation Biodiesel
11.3.1 Microalgae
11.3.2 Oleaginous Yeast
11.3.3 Waste-Activated Sludge
11.4 Specification and Legal Standards for Biodiesel
11.5 Beyond Sustainability
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Role of Nanocatalysts in Biofuel Production and Comparison With Traditional Catalysts
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fuels (Alcohol/Biodiesel) Can Replace Fossil Fuels Or Petroleum-Based Fuel
12.2.1 Biofuels
12.2.2 Classification of Biofuels
12.2.2.1 First-Generation Biofuels
12.2.2.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
12.2.2.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
12.3 Types of Promising Catalysts Used for the Production of Biofuels
12.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
12.3.2 Homogeneous Alkaline Catalysts
12.3.3 Homogeneous Acidic Catalysts
12.3.4 Heterogeneous Catalysts
12.3.5 Heterogeneous Alkaline Catalysts
12.3.6 Heterogeneous Acidic Catalysts
12.4 Biocatalysts
12.5 Nanocatalysts
12.6 Nanomaterials Used in Biofuel Production
12.6.1 Nanomaterials
12.6.2 Nanoparticles Used in Biofuel Production
12.6.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles
12.6.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
12.6.2.3 Other Nanoparticles
12.7 Conclusion
References
Index