Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and Autonomous Vehicles: From Fundamentals to Applications

Contents
Introduction
1 Reshape the Future of Transportation
2 Challenges
2.1 New Technologies
2.2 Requalification of Non-Auto-Grade Components
2.3 New Mission Profiles for Existing Auto-Grade Components
3 Overview of Chapters
4 Summary
References
Basics and Applications of AI in ADAS and Autonomous Vehicles
1 Introduction
1.1 Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADASs)
1.2 Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) and Automation Levels
1.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL)
2 Applications of AI in ADAS
2.1 Supervised Learning
2.2 Unsupervised Learning
2.3 Reinforcement Learning
2.4 Deep Learning (DL)
3 Safety in ADAS and AV Based on AI
3.1 Safety Standards and Methodologies
3.2 AI Safety Challenges: Edge Cases and Heavy Tail Distribution
3.3 Safety in AI System Design, Validation, Testing and Implementation
4 Datasets, Simulators, and Infrastructures for AI Systems
4.1 Publicly Available Training and Testing Datasets
4.2 Open-source Simulators
4.3 Infrastructures for AI Systems
5 Summary
References
Computing Technology in Autonomous Vehicle
1 Introduction
2 Compute and ADAS Technology
2.1 Levels of Autonomous Driving
2.2 Platform for Autonomous Driving System
2.3 Perception and Localization
2.4 Prediction, Planning, and Control
2.5 Functional Safety
3 Advanced Computer System
3.1 Architecture Solution and Comparisons
3.2 Environment Perception Sensors
3.3 System on Chip (SoC)
3.4 Memory
3.5 Storage
3.6 Network
3.7 Real-Time Operating System
3.8 Management, Failure Detection, and Diagnostics
3.9 Security and Middleware
4 Electrical Functional and Reliability Validation
4.1 Automotive Level EE Functional Tests
4.2 Reliability Validation Tests Based on AV Mission Profiles
4.3 EMC/ESD Validation
5 Challenges to Safe Deployment at Scale
5.1 Artificial Intelligence: Perception and Prediction
5.2 Power Consumption
5.3 Thermal Management
5.4 Manufacturing, Assembly, and Quality Control
5.5 Size and Cost
5.6 Quality and Reliability
5.7 Security and Safety
6 Summary
References
Overview of Packaging Technologies and Cooling Solutions in ADAS Market
1 Introduction
1.1 Market Opportunity and Trends
1.2 Road to Autonomy: ADAS Architecture
2 Package Technology and AD Requirements
2.1 Role of Advantage Packaging Technology in AD Market
2.2 Smaller System Level Footprints
3 Thermal Management
3.1 ECU Thermal Fundamentals
3.2 Component Level Fundamentals
3.3 Vehicle Operating Environment
3.4 ADAS ECU Thermal Management
4 ADAS Product Reliability Requirements
4.1 Qualification Requirements
4.2 ADAS Performance Requirements and Implications—ADAS Mission Profile
4.3 Failure Regimes—Quality and Wear-Out Failures
4.4 Package Reliability Challenges
5 Summary
References
Flash Memory and NAND
1 NAND Flash—The Perfect Storage Medium
1.1 What is NAND Flash
1.2 NOR Versus NAND
1.3 Evolution of NAND Flash
2 NAND Fundamentals
2.1 NAND Arrays in 2D and 3D
2.2 Basic NAND Operations
2.3 Multi-Bit-Per-Cell Technologies
2.4 Anatomy of a NAND Product
2.5 3D NAND Technology Basics
3 3D NAND Technology and Design Challenges
3.1 Cost-Performance-Reliability Tradeoffs
3.2 3D NAND Technology Challenges
3.3 3D NAND Design Challenges
4 NAND Reliability Issues
4.1 Write Errors
4.2 Disturb Errors
4.3 Data Retention Errors
5 3D NAND Future Outlook
References
Interconnect
1 Interconnects for Applications Under the Hood
1.1 Nanoparticle Sintering Method
1.2 Transient Liquid Phase Bonding Technology
1.3 Electrochemical Migration Phenomenon
2 Solder Joint Technology for Applications Under the Hood
2.1 Low Melting Point Solders
2.2 Low-Temperature Assembly
3 Introduction for Low-Temperature Cu to Cu Direct Bonding
3.1 Cu-Cu Bonding by Surface-Activated Bonding Process
3.2 Cu-Cu Bonding by Chemical Pretreatment
3.3 Cu-Cu Bonding by Thermal Compressive Bonding
3.4 Low-Temperature Cu-Cu Bonding by (111) Nanotwinned Structure
3.5 Low-Temperature Cu to Cu Bonding with Ag Passivation Under Atmosphere
3.6 Hybrid Bonding
References
Cameras in Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems and Autonomous Driving Vehicles
1 Introduction
2 Camera System Overview
3 Camera System Hardware
3.1 Image Sensor
3.2 Optics
3.3 Electronics
3.4 Image Signal Processor (ISP)
4 Image Processing
4.1 Image Processing Pipeline
4.2 Calibration
4.3 ISP Tuning
5 Camera Product Development
5.1 Product Definition
5.2 Camera Design
5.3 Prototype
5.4 Validation
5.5 Manufacturing
5.6 Implementation
5.7 Support
6 Summary
References
Lidar Technology
1 Introduction
2 Overview of Current Lidar Technology for Automotive Application
3 Important Performance Metrics for Lidar
3.1 Range
3.2 Field of View
3.3 Angular Resolution/Accuracy
3.4 Frame Rate
3.5 Eye Safety
4 Transmitter and Receiver
5 Distance Calculation
5.1 Range of Time of Flight
5.2 Signal-To-Noise Ratio
5.3 Factors that Affect Range Detection
6 Future Direction of Lidar Developments
6.1 Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)
7 Mapping Methods
7.1 Mechanical Spinning Scanner
7.2 Opto-Mechanical Scanning
7.3 MEMS Scanning
7.4 Flash
7.5 Optical Phased Array (OPA)
8 Discussion
References
Radar Technology
1 Introduction
2 Radar Physical Design
2.1 Radar Architecture
2.2 Radar Categories
3 Waveform Design
3.1 Pulse Radar
3.2 Pulse Coded Radar
3.3 FMCW Radar
4 Link Budget Analysis for FMCW Radar
4.1 Radar Equation
4.2 Target Reflectivity
4.3 Processing Gain
5 Challenges and Solutions for Automotive Radars
5.1 Interference
5.2 Under- and Overclustering
5.3 Classification
5.4 Lack of Resolution
5.5 Data Fusion
5.6 Radar Integration
6 Summary
References
Electrochemical Power Systems for Advanced Driver-Assistant Vehicles
1 Introduction
2 Batteries
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Battery Cells
2.3 Battery Cell Internal Structure
2.4 Battery Cell Manufacturing Process
2.5 Chemistry Choices for Li-Ion Battery for EV Applications
2.6 Next-Generation Li-Ion Battery for EV Applications
2.7 Battery Management System
2.8 Battery Testing Methods and Industrial Standards
2.9 Battery Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
3 Fuel Cells
3.1 Major Types of Fuel Cells
3.2 Fuel Cells for EV Application
4 Capacitors
5 Summary
References
In-Vehicle Display Technology
1 Introduction
2 In-Vehicle Display Technologies and Architectures
2.1 LCD
2.2 TFT LCD
2.3 OLED
2.4 LED, Mini-/Micro-LED
2.5 Head-Up Display
2.6 Flexible and Free-Form
2.7 Touch Technology
3 In-Vehicle Display Requirements
3.1 Optical Performance Requirement
3.2 Appearance
3.3 Integration and Fabrication
3.4 Color Measurement and Characterization
3.5 Mura, Defect, Inspection, and Demura
3.6 Visibility in Bright Light and Complete Darkness
3.7 Improvement of Image and Touch Quality
3.8 Reliability and Durability
3.9 Functional Safety
4 In-Vehicle Display Challenges
4.1 Specification and Functionality Challenges
4.2 Quality, Reliability, and Validation Challenges
4.3 EMC/EMI Challenges
4.4 ESD and High-Transient Voltage Challenges
5 Common LED LCD Reliability Testing Failure Modes and Effects Case Studies
5.1 FOS Spotlighting Failure Mechanism and Risk Assessment
5.2 BLU Film Buckling/Waving/Wrinkle Failure Mechanism Study
5.3 Metal Oxide TFT Panel-Level VGH and VGL Reliability Modeling
5.4 LCD Panel UV Irradiation Aging Reliability Modeling
5.5 Polarizer Edge Bleaching Failure Mechanism and Reliability Modeling
5.6 Free-Fall Object Impact Test and LCD Glass Crack Failure Risk Assessment
5.7 LED Lumen Degradation Reliability Modeling
6 Summary
References
Disk Drive for Data Center Storage
1 Introduction
2 Hard Disk Drive Application in Data Center
2.1 Data Storage for Autonomous Vehicle
2.2 Data Storage Configurations in Data Center
2.3 Hard Disk Drive Versus Solid-State Drive in Data Center
3 Hard Disk Drive Design
3.1 Hard Disk Drive System
3.2 Components in Recording Head
3.3 Next Generation Hard Disk Drive
4 Challenges in the Performance and Reliability
4.1 The Need for Higher Areal Data Density
4.2 Microwave-Assisted Magnetic Recording (MAMR)
4.3 Heat-Assisted Magnetic Recording (HAMR)
4.4 The Future of High-Volume Hard Disk Drive
5 Summary
References
Role and Responsibility of Hardware Reliability Engineer
1 Introduction
2 Risk Assessment Methodologies
2.1 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
2.2 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
2.3 Stress-Strength Analysis
3 Accelerated Life Testing (ALT) and Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT)
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Identify Field Stress Factors
3.3 Determine Stress Levels
3.4 Acceleration Models and Acceleration Factor
3.5 Case Study
4 Reliability Statistics
4.1 Sample Size
4.2 Life Distribution Analysis
4.3 Confidence Interval
4.4 Hypothesis Test
5 Failure Analysis (FA) and Corrective/Preventive Actions (CAPA)
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Process Flow
5.3 Case Study
6 System Level Reliability and Modeling
6.1 Introduction to Reliability Block Diagram (RBD)
6.2 Series Configuration
6.3 Parallel Configuration
6.4 k-Out-of-n Configuration
6.5 Combined Configurations
6.6 Complex Reliability Systems
6.7 Dynamic System Reliability Models
7 Repairable System
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
7.3 Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)
7.4 Availability
8 Summary
References
Failure Analysis in Advanced Driver Assistance Systems
1 Introduction
2 Failure Analysis Flow
2.1 Failure Analysis of Systems or Boards
2.2 Failure Analysis of Packages
2.3 Failure Analysis of Si Device
3 Electrical Failure Analysis (EFA) and Fault Isolation Techniques
3.1 Non-destructive Fault Isolation Tools
3.2 Optical Fault Isolation Tools
3.3 Nanoprobing and E-beam Imaging
3.4 E-beam Probing
4 Physical Failure Analysis
4.1 Sample Preparation Techniques
4.2 Defect Imaging Techniques
4.3 Material Analysis Techniques
5 Non-Destructive and High-Resolution Imaging Techniques
5.1 Optical and Infrared (IR) Imaging
5.2 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)
5.3 2D X-ray Radiography
5.4 3D X-ray Computed Tomography (CT)
6 Summary
References
Corrosion Mechanisms of Copper and Gold Ball Bonds in Semiconductor Packages
1 Background and Motivation
1.1 The Importance of Ball Bonds
1.2 Corrosion of Cu Ball Bonds and Its Impact
1.3 Structure-Based Inference of Corrosion Mechanisms and Its Limitation
1.4 Electrochemical Investigation of Corrosion Mechanisms and Its Limitation
1.5 The Need to Unify the Two Approaches
1.6 Beyond Cu Ball Bonds—Au Ball Bonds
1.7 Sources of Data
2 Materials and Methods
3 Electrochemical Investigation
3.1 Corrosion Potentials of Cu, Al, and Cu-Al IMCs
3.2 Ingot Stack to Simulate Cu Ball Bonds and the Limitations
4 Microstructures at the Bond Interfaces
4.1 The Passing Interface
4.2 The Failing Interfaces
5 Thermodynamics of Cu Ball Bond Corrosion—Pourbaix Diagrams
5.1 Initial Stage of the Corrosion at 25 °C
5.2 Initial Stage of the Corrosion at 125 °C
5.3 Advanced Stage of the Corrosion at 25 °C
6 The Corrosion Process
6.1 Initial Stage of Corrosion
6.2 Advanced Stage of Corrosion—Crevice Corrosion/SCC
6.3 Cathodic Reactions
7 Addressing the Corrosion
7.1 Decreasing Extractable Cl− Ion Concentration of EMC
7.2 Pd-Coating of Cu Wires
7.3 Post-bond Heating
7.4 Application of Corrosion Inhibitor
8 Similar Pitting and Crevice Corrosion in Au Ball Bonds
9 Conclusions
References