Advanced Biosensors for Virus Detection: Smart Diagnostics to Combat SARS-CoV-2

Advanced Biosensors for Virus Detection
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 epidemic and pandemic
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2: the member of the coronavirus family
1.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 in connection with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus and Middle East respiratory syndrome-coro...
1.3 Virion structure of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2
1.4 Pathophysiology of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 infection
1.5 Transmissibility of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2
1.6 Origin and etiology of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2
1.7 From epidemic to pandemic
1.8 Perspective
References
2 Lesson learned from coronaviruses (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2) and socioeconomic impact of (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Coronaviruses and family
2.2.1 Coronaviruses and human diseases
2.2.2 Coronavirus outbreaks in the past
2.2.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
2.2.4 Middle East respiratory syndrome-coronavirus
2.2.5 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2
2.3 Diagnostics
2.4 Therapeutics
2.5 Vaccines
2.6 World health response to coronavirus disease
2.7 Public health response to coronavirus disease
2.8 Human–animal nexus
2.9 What we learned from pandemic and future
2.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflicts of interest
References
3 Structure, genomic analysis, and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2
3.1 Classification of coronaviruses
3.2 Morphology and structure of SARS-CoV-2
3.2.1 Spike (S) protein
3.2.2 Membrane (M) protein
3.2.3 Envelope (E) protein
3.2.4 Nucleocapsid (N) protein
3.3 Nonstructural proteins
3.3.1 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
3.3.2 The main protease
3.4 Genomic analysis
3.4.1 Phylogenetic analysis
3.4.2 Emergence of newer variants of SARS-CoV-2
3.5 Pathogenesis of coronavirus 19
3.5.1 Infection and viremia
3.5.2 Inflammation and cytokine storm
3.5.2.1 Clinical manifestations of coronavirus 19
3.5.2.2 Coagulopathy
3.5.3 Postinflammatory pulmonary fibrosis
3.6 Extrapulmonary manifestations of coronavirus 19
3.6.1 Cardiac involvement
3.6.2 Hematological manifestations
3.6.3 Renal manifestation
3.6.4 Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary manifestations
3.6.5 Endocrine manifestations
3.6.6 Neurological manifestations
3.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
4 COVID-19 diagnosis: approaches and challenges
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sample collection
4.3 qRT-PCR for detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA
4.4 Cartridge-based nucleic acid amplification tests
4.5 Pooling of specimens for nucleic acid amplification test
4.6 Isothermal assays
4.7 Rapid antigen detection test
4.8 Quality control of COVID-19 testing
4.9 Conclusion
References
5 Current therapeutic choices for coronavirus disease 2019: a state-of-the-art review
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Pathophysiology of coronavirus disease
5.2.1 Stage of infection and viremia
5.2.2 Stage of inflammation and cytokine storm
5.2.3 Postinflammatory pulmonary fibrosis and its complications
5.3 Therapeutics of proven utility, targeting stage of infection and viremia
5.3.1 Monoclonal antibodies
5.4 Therapeutics of limited or unproven utility, targeting stage of Infection and viremia
5.4.1 Remdesivir
5.4.2 Hydroxychloroquine
5.4.3 Ivermectin
5.4.4 Lopinavir
5.5 Therapeutics of proven utility, targeting cytokine storm
5.5.1 Glucocorticoids
5.5.2 Anticoagulants
5.6 Therapeutics of limited utility, targeting cytokine storm
5.6.1 Tocilizumab
5.6.2 Interferons
5.6.3 Baricitinib
5.6.4 Bevacizumab
5.6.5 Infliximab
5.6.6 Artesunate
5.7 Therapeutics of limited or uncertain utility, targeting post-coronavirus disease complications
5.7.1 Drugs targeting pulmonary fibrosis: nintedanib and pirfenidone
5.7.2 Colchicine
5.7.3 Drugs targeting pulmonary hypertension
5.7.4 Long term anticoagulation therapy
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 Genomic, proteomic biomarkers and risk factors associated with COVID-19
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biomarkers
6.3 Proteomic Biomarkers for COVID-19
6.3.1 Cytokines
6.3.2 Acute-phase proteins
6.3.3 Clinical biochemical parameters
6.3.4 Identification of novel proteomics biomarkers for COVID-19
6.4 Genetic biomarkers
6.4.1 Genetic predisposition biomarkers
6.4.1.1 Role of human leukocyte antigen in genetic predisposition to COVID-19
6.4.1.2 Single nucleotide polymorphism contribute to COVID-19 predisposition
6.4.2 Noncoding RNA
6.5 Conclusion and future perspective
References
7 Biological/synthetic receptors (antibody, enzyme, and aptamer) used for biosensors development for virus detection
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of bioreceptors
7.2.1 Enzymes
7.2.2 Antibody and antigen
7.2.3 Nucleic acid
7.2.4 Whole cell
7.2.5 Aptamers
7.2.6 Peptides
7.2.7 Molecularly imprinted polymers
7.2.8 Other sensor paradigms
7.3 Properties of biosensors based on bioreceptors
7.4 Examples of biosensors for detection of coronavirus disease 2019 based on different bioreceptors
7.4.1 Antibody receptor based
7.4.2 Antigen receptor based
7.4.3 Nucleic acid receptor based
7.4.4 Peptide receptor based
7.5 Future prospects
7.6 Conclusion
References
8 Potential electrochemical biosensors for early detection of viral infection
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Types of viral infections and their detection
8.2.1 Respiratory viral infection
8.2.1.1 Influenza virus (IV)
8.2.1.1.1 Electrochemical detection of IV
8.2.1.2 Corona virus
8.2.1.2.1 Electrochemical detection of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)
8.2.2 Sexually transmitted viral infection
8.2.2.1 Hepatitis B virus
8.2.2.2.1 Electrochemical detection of HBV
8.2.2.2 Human papilloma virus
8.2.2.2.1 Electrochemical detection of human papilloma virus
8.2.2.3 Human immunodeficiency virus
8.2.2.3.1 Electrochemical detection of human immunodeficiency virus
8.2.3 Food-borne viral infection
8.2.3.1 Norovirus
8.2.3.1.1 Electrochemical detection of Norovirus
8.2.3.2 Hepatitis A virus
8.2.3.2.1 Electrochemical detection of HAV
8.2.3.3 Hepatitis E virus
8.2.3.3.1 Electrochemical detection of hepatitis E virus
8.2.4 Mosquito-borne viral infection
8.2.4.1 Zika virus
8.2.4.1.1 Electrochemical detection Zika virus
8.2.4.2 Dengue virus
8.2.4.2.1 Electrochemical detection of Dengue virus
8.2.4.3 Chikungunya virus
8.2.4.3.1 Electrochemical detection of chikunguniya virus
8.3 Conclusion
References
9 Optical biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biosensors: an introduction to optical biosensors
9.3 Surface-plasmon resonance-based biosensors
9.4 Localized surface plasmon resonance-based optical biosensors
9.5 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering-based optical biosensors
9.6 Optical lateral flow assay for SARS-CoV-2-detection
9.7 Challenges in developing optical biosensors
9.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
10 Recent developments of molecular/biosensor diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 detection
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nucleic acid-based detection
10.2.1 RT-q PCR-based detection
10.2.2 Alternate nucleic acid testing
10.2.2.1 Isothermal amplification
10.3 Serological testing
10.4 Biosensors for COVID-19 diagnostics
10.4.1 Electrochemical biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection
10.4.2 Optical biosensors
10.4.3 CRISPR-based biosensor for SARS-CoV-2
10.5 Electrical and piezoelectric biosensors
10.5.1 COVID test based on antibody detection
10.5.2 Detection of blocking antibodies
10.5.3 Harnessing wearable devices to detect SARS-CoV-2 infections
10.5.4 Smart toilet technology
10.6 Future directions
10.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
11 Role of magnetic nanoparticles in development of biosensors for viral infection diagnostics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Capture, preconcentration, extraction
11.3 Multiple detections with immunomagnetic separation
11.4 Labeling
11.5 Magnetic label
11.6 Fluorometric label
11.7 Labeling based on the enzyme-like activity of magnetic nanoparticles
11.8 Dual role of magnetic nanoparticles and application in microfluidics
11.9 Conclusion and perspective
References
12 Advances in nanomaterials-based biosensors for the development of virus detection
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Fundamental principles
12.3 Gold nanoparticles-based biosensor
12.3.1 Gold nanoparticles for the detection of Zika virus
12.3.2 Gold nanoparticles for the detection of SARS-CoV
12.4 Quantum dots-based nanomaterials
12.5 Upconversion nanoparticles
12.6 Conclusion and future perspective
Abbreviations
References
13 Multiplexed biosensors for virus detection
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Biosensors
13.3 Application of multiplex biosensors on detection of viruses
13.3.1 Coronaviruses
13.3.2 Zika virus
13.3.3 Ebola virus
13.3.4 Dengue
13.4 Conclusion
13.5 Future perspectives
References
14 Electrical biosensors for virus detection
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Electrical biosensor
14.3 Electrode-based biosensor
14.3.1 Microelectrode-based biosensor
14.3.2 Interdigitated electrodes-based biosensor
14.4 Transistor-based biosensor
14.4.1 Ion sensitive field-effect transistor biosensor
14.4.2 Silicon nanowire biosensor
14.4.3 Organic field-effect transistor-based biosensor
14.5 Biorecognition elements
14.6 Electrical biosensor measurement techniques
14.6.1 Current versus voltage (I–V) measurement
14.6.2 Impedance measurement
14.6.3 LabVIEW-based measurement
14.7 Recent development in electrical biosensor
14.7.1 Wearable biosensors
14.7.2 Wireless biosensor
14.7.3 Internet-of-Things -based biosensing technology
14.7.4 Machine learning in biosensing
14.8 Conclusion and future scope
Abbreviations
References
15 Diagnostic biosensors for coronaviruses and recent developments
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Traditional detection methods
15.3 Biosensors in coronavirus detection
15.3.1 Electrochemical biosensors
15.3.1.1 Multiplexed electrochemical array
15.3.1.2 Cotton-tipped electrochemical biosensor
15.3.1.3 Magnetic nanoparticles-based electrochemical biosensors
15.3.1.4 Molecular imprinted polymer-based electrochemical biosensor
15.3.1.5 Graphene oxide/paper-based biosensor
15.3.1.6 DNA-based biosensor for the detection of the viral genes
15.3.2 Optical biosensors
15.3.2.1 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering and chemiluminescence
15.3.2.2 Plasmonic biosensors
15.3.2.3 Colourimetry-based biosensors
15.3.2.4 Microfluidic-based biosensors
15.3.3 Field-effect transistor
15.4 Conclusions and future perspectives
References
16 Fluorescence-based biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 viral infection diagnostics
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Fluorescence-based strategies in biosensors
16.2.1 DNA staining and fluorescence labeling
16.2.2 Förster resonance energy transfer -based biosensors
16.2.3 Metal-enhanced fluorescence-based biosensors
16.3 Fluorescence-based biosensors in viral diagnostic applications
16.3.1 Hybridization-based probes
16.3.2 Light-up RNA aptamer probes
16.3.3 Antibody-based probes
16.4 Advances in fluorescence-based biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 viral infection diagnostics
16.4.1 Nucleic acid detection
16.4.2 Protein detection
16.4.3 Other approaches
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 Miniaturized analytical system for point-of-care coronavirus infection diagnostics
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Current diagnostic techniques
17.2.1 Polymerase chain reaction/reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
17.2.2 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification/reverse transcription and loop-mediated isothermal amplification
17.2.3 Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
17.2.4 Computerized tomography scan
17.2.5 Electrochemical-based biosensor
17.2.6 Optical-based biosensor
17.2.7 Lateral flow immunoassay
17.2.8 Microfluidic-based biosensor
17.2.9 Mass-spectroscopy-based biosensor
17.3 Potential point-of-car miniaturized biosensor
17.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
18 Microfluidic devices with integrated biosensors for coronavirus infection diagnostics
18.1 Introduction to coronavirus
18.2 Available detection methods for SARS-CoV-2 virus
18.3 Microfluidic-based biosensor system
18.3.1 Middle East respiratory syndrome
18.3.2 Severe acute respiratory syndrome
18.3.3 Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2
18.4 Commercially available biosensor systems
18.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
Conflicts of interest
References
19 Approaches for fabrication of point-of-care biosensors for viral infection
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Methodology for fabrication of biosensor
19.3 Fabrication of electrochemical biosensor
19.4 Fabrication of optical biosensor
19.5 Fabrication of paper-based biosensor
19.6 Fabrication of microfluidic and lab-on-a-chip biosensor
19.7 Fabrication of molecularly imprinted polymer-based biosensor
19.8 Fabrication of magnetic biosensor
19.9 Fabrication of three-dimensional printing biosensor
19.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
20 Currently available biosensor-based approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 detection
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Diagnostic approaches for viral diseases
20.3 Biosensors in the detection of respiratory viruses
20.3.1 Electrochemical biosensor
20.3.2 Optical biosensor
20.3.3 Piezoelectric biosensor
20.3.4 Thermal biosensors
20.4 Present diagnostic methods for severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 detection
20.5 Advantages offered by biosensors
20.6 Concluding remark
Abbreviations
References
21 Biosensors-based approaches for other viral infection detection
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Appropriate target sites for the detection of viruses
21.2.1 Surface protein
21.2.2 Viral protein
21.2.3 Genetic material
21.3 Importance of biosensor in the diagnostics
21.4 Detection of mammalian viruses by a biosensor
21.4.1 Dengue
21.4.2 Human immunodeficiency virus
21.4.3 Zika
21.4.4 Hepatitis
21.4.5 Influenza virus
21.5 Importance and significance of biological analytes
21.6 Future scopes
Abbreviations
References
Further reading
22 Scaling up of biosensors for clinical applications and commercialization
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Commercialization of biosensors
22.2.1 Commercial electrochemical biosensors
22.2.2 Commercial optical biosensors
22.2.3 Commercial piezoelectric biosensors
22.3 Future outlook
References
23 Future aspects of biosensor-based devices in disease detection
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Need for advanced nanobiosensors
23.3 Detection of metabolites and metals by nanobiosensors
23.4 Applications of nanobiosensors in the detection of noncommunicable diseases
23.5 Applications of nanobiosensors in the detection of infectious diseases
23.6 Advanced biosensing applications toward disease detection
23.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
Index