Advanced Biofuel Technologies: Present Status, Challenges and Future Prospects

Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
About the editors
An overview of some futurist advanced biofuels and their conversion technologies
Introduction
Biofuels for transport applications
Methanol
Emissions reductions by use of methanol
India status-Methanol economy
Methanol as shipping fuel
Methanol production methods
Catalysts for methanol production
Methanol from CO2
Commercial scale methanol production from CO2/H2
Butanol
Ammonia as a marine fuel
The Fischer-Tropsch process for liquid hydrocarbons
FT on biomass
Product selectivity and distribution in FT synthesis
Catalysts
Conclusions
References
Advanced biofuels: Perspectives and possibilities
Introduction
Cellulosic biomass as a feedstock for microbial fermentation to fuels and chemicals
Cellulosic ethanol
Butanol
Thermotolerant microbial biocatalyst for production of fuels
Lactic acid
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Biomass feedstocks for advanced biofuels: Sustainability and supply chain management
Introduction
Biomass energy
Biofuels
Bioproducts
Biomass feedstocks
Sugar crops
Sugarcane
Energy cane
Biomass sorghum
Brown midrib sorghum
Energy crops
Switchgrass
Miscanthus
Hybrid poplar
Bamboo
Agricultural residues
Rice straw
Structural constituents
Wheat straw
Corn stover
Cotton stalks
Sugarcane bagasse
Biomass availability
Biomass supply chain structure and characteristics
Feedstock supply and logistics
Seasonal availability
Exploring nuisances of sustainable biomass supply
Sustainable supply chain management
Biomass collection
Biomass pretreatment
Storage
Transport
Conversion of biomass to energy
Focus on innovation and flexibility to changing local scenarios
Awareness generation and stakeholder meetings
Policy support for advanced biofuels
Reduction of water foot-print of biofuel production
Wastewater and algal biofuel
Indian scenario on wastewater treatment and reuse in agriculture
Potential of constructed wetlands
Challenges
Seasonal availability of biomass
Biomass harvesting
Moisture content in biomass
Density of biomass and transportation cost
Biomass supply chain and logistics
Conclusions
References
Microalgal biofuels: Challenges, status and scope
Introduction
Challenges
Outdoor algal growth systems
Water
Wastewater as water source
Land
Carbon dioxide
Low-cost nutrients
Enhanced lipid production
Algal strain selection
Algal strain improvement through genetic studies
Harvest of microalgae
Lipid recovery
Value-addition biocommodities
Economic analysis
Present status
Outdoor algal growth systems
Water
Wastewater as water source
Carbon dioxide
Low-cost nutrients
Enhancement of lipid production
Microalgae-bacteria microbial consortium
Algal strain improvement by genetic modification
Harvesting of microalgae
Physical methods
Chemical methods
Biological methods
Recovery of lipids
Value-addition biocommodities
Commercial companies worldwide involved in microalgal biofuels
Representative microalgal companies
Sapphire Energy, San Diego, California, USA
Seambiotic, Israel
Algenol, Florida, USA
Synthetic Genomics and ExxonMobil
Reliance Industries Ltd, India
PetroAlgae, Saratoga Springs, New York, USA
Green Star
Representative companies using mcroalgae-based carbon dioxide capture
Scope
Way forward
Acknowledgments
References
Biodiesel and green diesel
Introduction
Green diesel
Green diesel by hydro-processing of lipids
Hydrogenation and hydrodeoxygenation
Green diesel from conversion of olefins
Green diesel through pyrolysis and hydro-thermal liquefaction
Biodiesel from lipids by transesterification
Transesterification by homogeneous catalysts
Transesterification by heterogeneous catalysts
Biodiesel from algae
Comparison of green diesel and FAME
Biodiesel-global status
Biodiesel-Indian status
References
Development of second-generation ethanol technologies in India: Current status of commercialization
Introduction
Cellulosic ethanol: Commercialization status
National Biofuel Policy (NBP)
Second-generation ethanol processes and major challenges-A brief overview
Unit operations and associated challenges in 2G ethanol production
Thermochemical pretreatment of biomass
Enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated biomass
Ethanol fermentation
Waste management
Feedstock availability and supply chain management
Analytical framework in 2G ethanol process development
Technology readiness level (TRL) and commercialization prospects:
Biomass pretreatment
Enzymatic hydrolysis
Fungal cellulase production
Ethanol fermentation
Future perspectives and conclusion
References
Biomass characterization
Introduction
Major components in biomass
Lignocellulosic biomass
Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Lignin
Ash
Extractives
Aquatic biomasses
Physico-chemical characterization of biomass
Compositional analysis
Sulfuric acid hydrolysis method
NIRS method
Analysis using Fibertec analysis unit
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Oxygen
Calorific value of biomass
Elemental analysis (ICP-AES/OES)
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA, DTG, DSC)
Functional groups analysis by FT-IR
Crystallinity by XRD
Solid state NMR
Raman spectroscopy
Surface properties by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Challenges and opportunities
References
Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass for bioethanol production
Introduction
Lignocellulosic biomass and its conversion to bioethanol
Pretreatment
Goals of pretreatment
Physical treatment
Chemical method
Acid and alkaline pretreatment
Oxidation pretreatment
Green solvents
Dissolution mechanism of cellulose
Biological pretreatment
Enzymes involved in biological pretreatment
Combinational pretreatment strategies
Sequential acid and alkali treatment
Dilute acid+steam explosion
Alkali + steam explosion/ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX)
CO2 explosion
Wet explosion (wet oxidation+steam explosion) (WEx)
Inhibitor formation during pretreatment
Cellulose and its degradation products
Hemicellulose and its degradation products
Lignin and its degradation products
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Recent developments in cellulolytic enzymes for ethanol production
Introduction
Lignocellulosic biomass and its composition
Lignocellulolytic enzymes (LCEs)
Cellulases
Hemicellulases
Lignin depolymerizing enzymes
Accessory and nonhydrolytic proteins involved in cellulose hydrolysis
Cellulase mechanism of action and synergism
Cellulase producing microorganisms
Fungi
Bacterial cellulases
Cellulosomes
Cellulase production
Submerged fermentation (SmF)
Solid state fermentation (SSF)
Challenging aspects of cellulolytic enzyme applications for bioethanol production
Newer trends in enzymatic saccharification technologies
Commercialization of cellulolytic enzymes
Conclusion and perspective
References
Yeast-mediated ethanol fermentation from lignocellulosic pentosan
Introduction
Selection of lignocellulosic biomass
Biomass availability
Physicochemical characterization of biomass
Xylose recovery from biomass
Chemical methods
Pretreatment with acid
Pretreatment with alkali
Organosolv
Ionic liquids
Ozonolysis
Physicochemical pretreatment
Explosion by steam
CO2 explosion
Liquid hot water
Wet oxidation
Sulfite
Biological pretreatment
Strategies for fermentation of xylose to ethanol
Separate hydrolysis and fermentation
Separate hydrolysis and co-fermentation
Engineered yeasts for ethanol fermentation from pentose sugar
Influence of several xylose metabolic pathways on xylose fermentation
Genetic improvement for ethanol production in native xylose-fermenting yeasts
Ethanol from xylose: Techno-economic feasibility
Future prospect and way forward
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Pyrolytic bio-oil-Production and applications
Introduction
Reactors for fast pyrolysis
Fast pyrolysis
Bubbling fluidized bed reactors
Circulating fluidized beds reactors
Rotating cone reactors
Ablative pyrolysis reactors
Auger reactors
Pyrolysis technology world status
Bio-oil composition and characterization
Bio-oil characterization
Bio-oil properties
Pyrolysis oil specifications and standards
Bio-oil conversion to drop-in fuels
Bio-oil for heat and power
Combustion of bio-oil in the boiler
Combustion of bio-oil in gas turbines (https://task34.ieabioenergy.com/gas-turbines/)
Combustion of bio-oil in diesel engines
Combustion of bio-oil in marine engines
Bio-oil gasification to methanol and DME
Bio-oil upgrading
Physical upgrading methods
Chemical upgrading methods
Bio-oil refinery integration/co-refining
Current status of research and development of bio-oil co-refining
Pyrolysis technology status: Indian scenario
Conclusions
References
Biomass gasification: Thermochemical route to energetic bio-chemicals
Overview
Introduction and technology state of the art
Thermochemical conversion: India perspective
Thermochemical conversion: Europe and USA perspective
Biofuel production from the thermochemical route (excluding hydrogen)-Research and development
Hydrogen production through thermochemical route-Research and development
Summarizing
Biomass to bio-refinery quality syngas and hydrogen: Experience and challenges
Biomass gasification with downstream gas processing and highlights of work at Indian Institute of Science
Downstream processing for hydrogen enhancement and contaminant removal
Water-gas shift unit
Gas conditioning
Gas separation
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Progress and trends in renewable jet fuels
Introduction
The need for alternative aviation fuel
The carbon offsetting and reduction scheme for international aviation (CORSIA)
Available pathways
Fuel standards for synthetic aviation fuel
Aviation turbine fuel containing synthesized hydrocarbons (ASTM D7566)
ASTM approval process ASTM D4054
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis to renewable jet fuel (FT-SPK)
Hydroprocessing of lipids (HEFA-SPK)
Alcohol to aviation fuel (ATJ-SPK)
Pyrolysis of biomass to aviation fuel
Algae to jet fuel
Biomass conversion pathway to renewable jet through biotechnology platform
Power to liquid (PtL)
CO2 conversion technologies
Power to liquid (PtL)
Techno-commercial analysis of various technologies available for bio-jet fuel production
An alternative to liquid aviation fuel
Conclusions
Future outlook
References
Recent advances in lignin valorization
Introduction
Lignin structure and composition
Present status of lignin valorization
Fractionation/separation technologies
Lignin depolymerization for aromatics and bio-oil
Catalytic depolymerization
Oxidative depolymerization
Reductive depolymerization
Mechanochemical depolymerization
Microwave reaction
Photocatalytic depolymerization
Hydrothermal liquefaction
Hydrothermal carbonization for hydrochar
Pyrolysis and gasification
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis for bio-char
Biochemical processing of lignin
The biorefinery model
Conclusions
References
Bio-waste to hydrogen production technologies
Introduction
Current process for biohydrogen production
Dark fermentation/acidogenesis
Photo-fermentation
Bio-photolysis
Direct photolysis
Indirect photolysis
Enzymatic action on biohydrogen production
Microbial electrolysis cell (MEC)
Waste feedstock for biohydrogen production
Process integrations and hybrid systems for hydrogen production
Hythane (H-CNG)
Dark fermentationintegrated withphoto-fermentation
Dark fermentationintegrated withmicrobial electrolysis cell
Dark fermentationintegrated withmicrobial fuel cells
Multistage bioreactor system
Biorefinery approach
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Biorefinery approach for production of some high-value chemicals
Introduction
Biorefinery and sugar platform
Sorbitol
Furfural
Glucaric acid
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)
Levulinic acid
Conclusions
References
Biofuels and bioproducts from seaweeds
Introduction
Potential seaweed feedstocks and their characteristics
Cultivation, harvesting and pretreatment of seaweed biomass
Thermochemical conversion
Pyrolysis
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) (catalyzed and uncatalyzed)
Supercritical water gasification
Biochemical conversion
Anaerobic digestion (AD)
Bioethanol /biobutanol production
Biodiesel production
Biohydrogen production
Integrated approach for biorefinery and biofuel production from waste streams of seaweed processing
Challenges of biofuel production from seaweed biomass
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Anaerobic gas fermentation: A carbon-refining process for the production of sustainable fuels, chemicals, and
Introduction
Biochemistry of gas fermentation
Scale-up and commercialization
Current/future potential of synthetic biology and new process concepts
Conclusion
References
Cyanobacteria as a renewable resource for biofuel production
Introduction
Cyanobacterial host systems
Essential parameters for cyanobacterial hosts
Examples of cyanobacterial host systems
Advances in synthetic biology of cyanobacteria
Characterized biological parts
cis-Acting regulatory elements: Promoters, RBSs, and terminators
trans-Acting regulatory elements
Genome editing and assembly tools used in cyanobacteria
Challenges and future perspective for improving the synthetic biology approach for cyanobacteria
Metabolic flux analysis of cyanobacteria
Engineering cyanobacteria for the production of biofuels
Glycolytic pathway derivatives
Ethanol
Isobutanol
Isobutaraldehyde
2,3-Butanediol
1,3-Propanediol
Fatty acid synthesis pathway derivatives
1-Butanol
Isopropanol
Acetone
TCA cycle derivatives
Succinate
Ethylene
MEP and MVA pathway derivatives
Isoprene
Indian perspective on bioenergy
Challenges and future outlook
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References
Current technical advancement in biogas production and Indian status
Introduction
Biogas production capacity of India
Pretreatment of lignocellulosic feedstock
Chemical pretreatment
Biological pretreatment
Factors affecting biogas production
Digester designs
Types of anaerobic digester
Batch type biogas digester
Fixed dome
Floating dome (KVIC design)
Janta model
Deenbandhu biogas plant
Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)
Plug flow reactor (PFR)
Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
Unique mixed plug flow digester
Biogas purification system
Absorption
Adsorption
Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) and vacuum swing adsorption (VSA)
Temperature swing adsorption (TSA)
Electrical swing adsorption (ESA)
Cryogenic separation
Membrane separation technology
Hybrid systems for biogas upgradation
City gas distribution (CGD) in India
Biogas programme of India
Waste to energy programme
New national biogas and organic manure programme (NNBOMP)
National biofuel policy
Sustainable alternative toward affordable transportation (SATAT)
Galvanizing organic bio-agro resources Dhan (GOBAR-Dhan)
Fertilizer control order (FCO)
Indian biogas players
Praj Industries Limited
SLPP Re-new LLP
Primove Engineering Pvt. Ltd. (PEPL)
Thermax limited
NobleExchange environment solutions Pvt. ltd.
Sampurn Agri Ventures Pvt. Ltd. (SAVPL)
Spectrum renewable energy Pvt. Ltd. (SREL)
Future considerations
References
Regulations and specifications for biofuels
Introduction
Quality requirements
Indian scenario
Quality standards
Regulations
Indian standards for biofuels
Biodiesel blended fuels
A comparison with ASTM standards for biodiesel blended fuels
Significance of biodiesel specifications
Flash point and alcohol control
Flow properties
Acid number
Oxidation stability
Group I and II metals
Phosphorus
Reference
Life cycle and techno-economic assessment of microalgal biofuels
Introduction
Scope and methodology
Techno-economic assessment
Life cycle assessment
Techno-economic assessment: Results
Biodiesel as the only product
Co-production of multiple products
Life cycle assessment: Results
Base case scenario
Scenario studies
Conclusion
References
Index